ENGYGLQBEDIA VOL. xxvr • aih :)(.» TC»M THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVI SUBMARINE MINES to TOM-TOM Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 E.3 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL ; CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. A. R. A. ADAMS REILLY. J~ Joint-author of Life and Letters of J. D. Forbes. 1 TlSSerand, FranQOlS. A. Bo.* AUGUSTE BOUDINHON, D.D., D.C.L. Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of -4 Syllabus. Paris. Editor of the Canoniste contemporain. t A. B. Go. ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D. Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector in the \ Swabian League. University of Kiel, 1896-1905. {. A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. / Surface (in part). See the biographical article: CAYLEY, ARTHUR. I A. Ch. ALFRED CHAPMAN, M.lNST.C.E. /Sugar: Sugar Manufacture (in Designer and Constructor of Sugar-Machinery. I part). A. C. C. ALBERT CURTIS CLARK, M.A. [ Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and University Reader in Latin. •{ Theocritus. • Editor of Cicero's Speeches (Clarendon Press). I A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. [ Keeper of the Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J c ,_ . Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, | awonmsn. and Fishes in the British Museum; &c. [_ A. C. McG. REV. ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFPERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D. f Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of J ThonHnfa* a* j.*,f\ History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historia Ecclesia] lneoaorel Vn Pan>- of Eusebius. I A. D. G. ALFRED DENIS GODLEY, M.A. f Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford, and Public Orator in the University. -! Tacitus (in part) Author of Socrates and Athenian Society ; &c. Editor of editions of Tacitus. A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls Tavlor Rowland- College, Oxford. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- ' 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. A. G. MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908). f H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;\ Ticket-of-Leave. Secrets of the Prison House ; &c.' I f Tertullian (in part); A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, D. PH. J Ti«««/>/,,o «r M,.™-....,*;... See the biographical article : HARNACK, ADOLF. 1^°"? , M°Psue.stia [Theodoret (in part). A. He. ARTHUR HERVEY. (" Formerly Musical Critic to the Morning Post and to Vanity Fair. Author of Masters 4 Thomas, Charles. of French Music; French Music in the Nineteenth Century. A. H.-S. SIR A. HouTUM-ScHiNDLER, C.I.E. f Tabriz; General in the Persian Army. Autnor of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Teheran. A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D. , LL.D., Lrrr.D. ^Susa. See the biographical article: SAYCE, ARCHIBALD H. ,. A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. |~ Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent I Swedenborg, Emanuel; College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of | Tithes (Religion). Mysore Educational Service. L A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. f Tale. See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. \ 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v 1995 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. Mil. AUGUST MOLLER, PH.D. (1848-1892). f Formerly Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Halle. Author of H Sunnites (in part). Der Islam im Morgen- und Abendland. Editor of Orientalische Bibliographic. A. M. F.* ARTHUR MOSTYN FIELD, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.MET.S. f Vice- Admiral R.N. Admiralty Representative on Port of London Authority. J Surveying: Nautical. Acting Conservator of River Mersey. Hydrographer of the Royal Navy, 1904- 1909. Author of Hydrographical Surveying; &c. f Sugar-bird; Sun-bird; Sun-bittern; Swallow; A. H. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Swan; Swift; Tanager; See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. j Tapaculo; Teal; Tern; I Thrush; Tinamou; [ Titmouse; Tody. A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. f Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S.Jameson in medical practice in South Africa till -i Swaziland (in part). 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for the Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. A. R. S. K. REV. ARCHIBALD R. S. KENNEDY, M.A., D.D. Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages in the University of Edinburgh. J Tabernacle; Professor of Hebrew in the University of Aberdeen, 1887-1894. Editor of " Exodus " 1 Temple (in bart) in the Temple Bible. [_ A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D.; LL.D. f Member of the Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water 4 Temperance. Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. A. Sp. ARCHIBALD SHARP. Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent. A. S. C. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. Formerly Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian ] Textile-Printing: Art and Textiles in the Victoria and Albert Museum; &c. [ Archaeology. A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford j ,_ Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 Theosophy (in part). Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radical;; &c. A. Wa. ARTHUR WAUGH, M.A. Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly literary adviser to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of Alfred Lord Tennyson; Legends of the Wheel; \ Symonds, John Addmgton. Robert Browning in " Westminster Biographies." Editor of Johnson's Lives of the Poets. A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. f Them Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. I A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. f Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws 4 Thurlow, Lord. of England. C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D.LITT. r Thierry; See the biographical article : BEMONT, C. "[ Tnou jacques C. C. CHARLES CREIGHTON, M.A., M.D. r King's College, Cambridge. Author of A History of Epidemics in Britain; Jenner \ Sureerv Hislor\< and Vaccination; Plague »» India; &c. "geiy. C. El. SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L. Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa^ Tatars (in part) Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900-1904. [ C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Supply and Transport Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, ist City of London (Royal ] (Military); Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. [ Thirty Years' War. C. F. B. CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International 1 Token Money. Trade; &c. C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member of -| Sully. the American Historical Association. C. H. K. CLARENCE HILL K.ELSEY, A.M., LL.B. Vice-President and General Manager of the Bond and Mortgage Guarantee Company J Title Guarantee Companies. .New York City. Director of the Corn Exchange Bank; &c. C. H. W. CHARLES THEODORE HAGBERG WRIGHT, LL.D. Librarian and Secretary of the London Library. j Tolstoy, Leo. C. J. B. CHARLES JASPER BLUNT. r Major, Royal Artillery. Ordnance Officer. Served through Chitral Campaign, j Tirah Campaign. C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S., F.S.A. Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V Editor \ Suffolk, William de la Pole, ot Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. Duke of. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vll C. R. B. c. s. s. C. Wi. D. Br. D. C. To. D. F. T. D. Gi. D. G. H. D. H. D. H. S. D. LI. T. D. R.-M. D. S.* D. Sch. E. Ar.* E. A. F. E. Br. E. C. B. E. G. E. Ga. E. Gr. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lirr., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hisx.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, -i Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell 'Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry Thorfinn Karlselni. the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. CHARLES SCOTT SHERRINGTON, D.Sc., M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. f Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies I cvmlMji,0«ip of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrate Action of the Bynl Nervous System. C. WlLHELM. Author of Essays on Ballet and Spectacle. SIR DIETRICH BRANDIS, K.C.I. E., F.R.S. (1824-1907). Inspector-General of Forestry to the Indian Government, 1864-1883. REV. DUNCAN CROOKES TOVEY, M.A. Rector of Worplesdon, Surrey. Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; &c. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f Suite: Music; Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The-< Symphonic Poem; Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. ^ Symphony. SIR DAVID GILL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc. H.M. Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served on Geodetic Survey of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar I _, . , . •> Parallax by observations of Mars. Directed the Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape 1 lele c°Pe ^ Part>- Colony and Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogue of Stars for the Equinoxes, 1830, 1860, 1883, 1890, 1900; &c. DAVTD GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. f _ . Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow &yrla> of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 a«d 1903 ; -j Tobruk; Ephesus> 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, Tokat. 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. | Theatre: Spectacle. •I Teak (in part). •i Thomson, James (1700-1748). DAVID HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal • Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, London, 1885-1892. Formerly President of the Royal Microscopical Society and of the Linnean Society. Author of Structural Botany ; Studies in Fossil Botany ; &c. DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and • Rhondda. DAVID RANDALL-MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc. Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester - Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia; &c. DAVID SHARP, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Editor of the Zoological Record. Formerly Curator of the Museum of Zoology, . University of Cambridge, and President of the Entomological Society of London. Author of " Insecta " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. DAVID FREDERICK SCHLOSS, M.A. Formerly Senior Investigator and Statistician in the Labour Department of the • Board of Trade. Author of Methods of Industrial Remuneration ; &c. REV. ELKANAH ARMITAGE, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor in Yorkshire United Independent College, " Bradford. EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford, and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., LITT.D. f Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius " -| in Cambridge Texts and Studies. Suflren, Admiral; Swold, Battle of. Thuret, Gustave. Swansea. Sudan: Arcltaeology (in part). Termite. Sweating System. Superintendent. Formerly Fellow -j Syracuse. Tancred; Teutonic Order. Tertiaries; Thomas of Celano. S ully-Pr udhomme ; Sweden: Literature and Philosophy; Swinburne, Algernon C.; Tegner, Esaias; Tennyson, Alfred; Terza Rima. f Telegraph: Commercial .l^Jl, VJAK^Jtr*, IV-L.iiNSl.lJ.iv. j . . Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Co. Ltd. Author of Manual ofJ. „ Electrical Undertakings ;&c. \ Telephone: Commercial Aspects. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND. EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. I" Sunium; Tegea: Archaeology; \ Thebes (Greece); [Tiryns (in part). viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES E. H.* ERNEST HARRISON, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Studies in i Terence (in part). Theognis. E. He. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical 1 Tanganyika, Lake. Society, London. E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. J*un.; . University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian 1 ineodOSia: Ancient; of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. [ Thyssagetae. E. K. EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., F.I.C. f Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical Textile-printing* Manu- Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, -j City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor Jacl' of the Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT., LL.D. fTigranes; Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des -j Tiridates; Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. I Tissaphernes E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A. f Theopomous Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. \ E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, I Surgery: Modern practice; Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of 1 Tetanus. A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. \, E. 0. S. EDWIN OTHO SACHS, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.lNST.M.E. f Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee. Vice-President, National Fire I Theatre: Modern stage Brigades' Union. Vice-President, International Fire Service Council. Author of 1 mechanism Fires and Public Entertainments; &c. L E. Wh. EMMANUEL WHEELER, M.A. -j Theophrastus. F. C. B. FRANCIS CRAWFORD BURKITT, M.A., D.D. f Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Part-editor of The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the \ Thomas, St (in part). Sinaitic Palimpsest. Author of The Gospel History and its Transmission; Early Eastern Christianity; &c. F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. [ ?uebj; Sussex> Kingdom of; Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. | Sweden: Early History; \ Teuton!. F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP. INST. r Vice- President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J — t, Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital, London, and the London School of Medicine for | Teetn< Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. F. G. P.* FRANK GEORGE POPE. f Terpenes Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). i F. H. H. FRANKLIN HENRY HOOPER. f Tammanv Hall Assistant Editor of the Century Dictionary. \ F. J. G. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK JOHN GOLDSMID. J See the biographical article : GOLDSMID : Family. |_ F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student •< ThuJe. Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer 1006-1007 Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c. ' I F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. Thebes (Egypt); Thoth. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial < German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis; &c. F. P. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (1856-1910). Sometime Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Modern Spiritualism- \ Table-turning. Mesmerism and Christian Science; &c. F. Po. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., LL.D., D.C.L. JcwnrH See the biographical article: POLLOCK: Family. 1 F. Pu. FREDERICK PURSER, M.A. (1840-1910). f Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Professor of Natural Philosophy in \ Surface (in part). the University of Dublin. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. 1 f Sudan: Geography and F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. Statistics, Archaeology (in Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. ] Parti and History; Swaziland (in part); F.V.B. F. VINCENT BROOKS. Timbuktu; Tlemcen. °f ^^ ^^ Br°°kS' °ay & **»• Ltd" Lithographic | Sun Copying. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. W. Ga. FREDERICK WILLIAM GAMBLE, D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Zoology in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Assistant Director I of the Zoological Laboratories and Lecturer in Zoology in the University of 1 Tapeworms. Manchester. Author of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical I Zoology; &c. F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. I Tal Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. j President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. F. W. T. FRANK WILLIAM TAUSSIG. j Tariff. See the biographical article: TAUSSIG, FRANK WILLIAM. G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. [Tadpole; Keeper of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -\ Teleostomes. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. G. G. P.* GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L. /Tithes' English Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. L G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Lecturer in the Faculty of Theology, i Teraphim (in part). University of Oxford, 1908-1909. Author of Translation of the Book of Isaiah; &c. L G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER. Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: i Thysanoptera. their Structure and Life. I G. H. D. SIR GEORGE HOWARD DARWIN, K.C.B., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D., D.Sc. (" Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Plumian Professor of Astronomy and J Tide. Experimental Philosophy in the University. President of the British Association, 1905. Author of The Tides and Kindred Phenomena in the Solar System ; &c. G. J. A. GEORGE JOHNSTON ALLMAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., D.Sc. (1824-1905). f Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Galway, and in Queen's University of -j males 01 Miletus. Ireland, 1853-1893. Author of Creek Geometry from Thales to Euclid; &c. G. L. GEORG LUNGE, PH.D., D.ING. / I See the biographical article : LUNGE, G. G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. 4 Thiers. See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN. G. Sn. GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., PH.D. I" _ Professor of Latin at the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological J °yn< Institute of America. Member of the American Philological Association. Author Taurobolium. of With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c. G. U. GOJI UKITA. J Formerly Chancellor of the Japanese Legation, London. Author of Wealth O/T Tokyo. Canada (in Japanese). G. W. P. GEORGE WALTER PROTHERO, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D. f Editor of the Quarterly Review. Honorary Fellow, formerly Fellow of King's iir-n- College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of History in the -j lemple, air William. University of Edinburgh, 1894-1899. Author of Life and Times of Simon de Mont- fort; &c. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Modern History. G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. fS,UyU,tl; I?b?T'L- Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old \ Tarafa; Tha Alibi; Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. L Tirmidhl. H. B. Wa. HENRY BEAUCHAMP WALTERS, M.A., F.S.A. [ Assistant to the Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. Author-^ Terracotta (in part). of The Art of the Greeks; History of Ancient Pottery; &c. I { Sullivan, Sir Arthur; Tennent, Sir E.- Tho. TO- iurnj. ~ t;», Theatre. Modern (in Thompson, Francis. H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S. J. f Symeon Metaphrastes; Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Ada Sanctorum and the Analecta Bollandiana. \ Synaxarium; Thecla, St. H. D. T. H. DENNIS TAYLOR. f Telescope (in part). Inventor of the Cooke Photographic Lens. Author of A System of Applied Optics. \ H. F. T. REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S. { Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the I Thessaly ; British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece, j Thrace. Author of History of Ancient Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece; &c. L H. H. HENRI SIMON HYMANS, PH.D. f Keeper of the BibliothSque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: saJ. Teniers (in part). vie et son aiuvre, H. H. L. HENRY HARVEY LITTLEJOHN, M.A., F.R.C.S. (Edin.)., F.R.S. (Edin.). f Professor of Forensic Medicine and Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University { Suicide. of Edinburgh. I H. Ja. HENRY JACKSON, Lirr.D., LL.D., O.M. f Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity I Thales of Miletus: Philosophy. College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to Illustrate the History 1 of Greek Philosophy from Thales to Aristotle. x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES H. L. C. HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D. f Thermodynamics; Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of « Thermoelectricity; Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. L Thermometry H. M. C. HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A. f Teutonic Languages; Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in •< Teutonic Peoples; Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. I Thor. H. R. K. HARRY ROBERT KEMPE, M.lNST.C.E. J Telegraph; Electrician to the General Post Office, London. Author of The Engineer's Year "j Telephone Book; &c. H. S. J. HENRY STUART TONES, M.A. f Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J _ . School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. | Jneaire. Ancient (in part). Author of The Roman Empire; &c. H. Tl. HENRY TIEDEMANN. J ThnrhA«.ir London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. I 1J H. W. B. SIR HILARO WILLIAM WELLESLEY BARLOW, Bart. / Sword: Modern Military (in Lieut.-Col. Royal Artillery. Superintendent of the Royal Laboratory, Woolwich. 1 part). H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. [ Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, S Theobald. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins ; Charlemagne. I H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. J Thapsacus Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. I I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f svnairof?ua United- Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J STw. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A 1 lam' Jacol) ben JAea' Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. LTanna. I. J. C. ISAAC JOSLIN Cox, PH.D. C Assistant Professor of History in the University of Cincinnati. President of the J „, , _ . Ohio Valley Historical Association. Author of The Journeys of La Salle and his 1 Taylor» Zaehary. Companions; &c. [_ J. A. F. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., r Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow „ , of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, •< Telegraph: Wireless and University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric Telegraphy. Currents. [_ 3. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE. f Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -I Tertiary. The Geology of Building Stones. J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. f See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. ADDINGTON. "I Tasso. J. Br. RIGHT HON. JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L., D.Lnr. r See the biographical article: BRYCE, JAMES. -| Theodora. J. Bra. JOSEPH BRAUN, S.J. Author of Die liturgische Gewandung; &c. •{ 5urPllce; I Tiara. J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. ,- Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c at Kine's College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Tumor 1 Timber. {engineers. J. C. E. JAMKS COSSAR EWART, M.D., F.R.S. Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Edinburgh. Swiney Lecturer on C Museum, 1907. Author of The Multiple Origin of Horses ™egony. J. D. Pr. JOHN DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D. C ' New York- Took part Sumer and sumerian- J. E. F. REV. JAMES EVERETT FRAME, A.M. ^ewaY^knu"hVProfpS^ ISSSSSS SL2S The°10giCal SCminary> { Thessalonians' EP-«es to the. J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. , .., .... NoZ°aUn M rr T ?*" f sP%nish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Tamayo y Baus- Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academv 1 T- ~, M , • Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of 1 TlISO de Molina- Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. L J. F. St. JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A. r ' Oxford. Targum. J. Ga. JAMES GATRDNER, C.B., LL.D. See the biographical article : GAIRDNER, JAMES. -jTalbot (Family) (in par f). 3- G. F. SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. f See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G. \ "^^^St Edward. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XI J. G. Fr. J. G. M. J. G. So. J. H. M. J. H. R. J. HI. R. J. Ja. J. K. I. J. K. L. JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Lirr.D. f Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, i Thesmophona (in part). Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough; &c. L JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). f Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of 4 Taste. Physiology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life ofHelmholtz; &c. L SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; The Upper Burma Gazetteer. I Theinni; ' \ Thibaw. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lirr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). f . Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director! watre. Ancient (tn part); of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South H Modern (in part); Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Tiryns (in part). Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. •Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family -{ Talbot (Family) (in part). History; Peerage and Pedigree. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D. Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J >raiievrand University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic 1 Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. JOSEPH JACOBS, LITT.D. Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding -j Tabernacles, Feast of. Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D. See the biographical article : INGRAM, JOHN KELLS. SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., Lrrr.D. Professor of Modern History, King's College, London. Secretary of the Navy Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856-1859. Mathe- matical and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, 1866-1873; Greenwich, 1873-1885. President, Royal Meteorological Society, 1882-1884. Honorary Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of King s College, London. Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing Winds and Currents; Studies in Naval History; Sea Fights and Adventures; &c. Sumptuary Laws. Tegetthoff, Admiral. J. L. E. D. J. M. J. Mt. J. HcE. J. M. G. J. M. H. J. Pu. J. P. E. J. P. P. J. P. Pe. J. S. F. JOHN Louis EMIL DREYER. Director of Armagh Observatory. Kepler; &c. Author of Planetary Systems from Tholes to •{ Time, Measurement of. SIR JOHN MACDONELL, M.A., C.B., LL.D. Master of the Supreme Court. Formerly Counsel to the Board of Trade and the London Chamber of Commerce ; Quain Profess9r of Comparative Law, Uni- . versity College, London. Editor of State Trials; 'Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey of Political Economy ; The Land Question ; &c. Suzerainty. REV. JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. Author of Historical New Testament; &c. JOHN McEwAN, F.R.G.S., F.R.MET.Soc. r Timothy, First Epistle to; Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. -I Timothy, Second Epistle to; I Titus, Epistle to. Tea. JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894). Art Critic. Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1884-1894. of David Scott, R.S.A.; James and William Tassie. Author J Tassie, James. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. r Terramara; Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London -j Themistocles; College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. I Thucydides (in part). JOHN PURSER, M.A., LL.D. (" Formerly Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Belfast. Member of the 1 Surface (in part). Royal Irish Academy. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. r Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J _ ... Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire dhistoire du droit 1 lame- franc,ais; Sec. JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., Lm.D. r Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, J Textual Criticism; Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly, | Tibullus, Albius. Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus poetarum Latinorum; &c. L JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. Canon Residentiary of the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of St John the Divine, New York City. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. • In charge of the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer en Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of" Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. Tigris. • Syenite; Tachylytes; Theralite. xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES JAMES SYKES GAMBLE, M.A., C.I.E., F.R.S., F.L.S. f Indian Forest Service (retired). Formerly Director of the Imperial Forest School -| Teak (in part). at Dchra Dun. Author of A Manual of Indian Timbers; &c. I J. S. Ga. at>VbchralDun.~Author of ~A Manual of Indian Timbers; &c. J. S. R. Amicitia; &c. Syr-Darya (River) (in part); Syr-Darya (Province) (in part) ; Takla Makan; Tambov (in part); Tarim; Tian-Shan; Tiflis (Town) (in part); Tobolsk (Government) (in part); . Tomsk (Government) (in part). J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBV. Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. (" Lecturer on Zoology at the South- Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J _ . of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the | University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. [Theatre: Law relating to All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -I Theatres; College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c. [ Tithes (Law). J. Wai. JAMES WALKER D.Sc., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. Professor of Chemistry, I Thprmnrhpmi«itrv University College, Dundee, 1894-1908. Author of Introduction to Physical] Chemistry. I J. W. G. JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S. [ Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and I Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart 1 Tasmania: Geology, of Australia; &c. I J. W. He. JAMES WYCUFFE HEADLAM, M.A. f Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London. Taaffe Count* Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient •{ _ ' ' . History at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the Tnun-Honenstem. German Empire; &c. J. W. L. G. JAMES WHTTBREAD LEE GLAISHER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J Table, Mathematical. Philosophical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger } of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. K. A. M.* KATE A. MEAKIN (MRS BUDGETT MEAKIN). /Tetuan; Sus. K. L. REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. r Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- | Tatian. ment; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ; &c. |_ K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. r Svmnhonia. Tambnurinp- Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. Editor of The Portfolio of Musical J if* ma' lamDounne> Archaeology. \ Timbrel. L. A. W. LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D. /Tih»* c i\ Lieut.-Colonel I.M.S. (retired). Author of Lhasa and its Mysteries; &c. \ ™ l (tn part)- L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r Sylvanite- Sylvite* Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the 1 Tetradymite; Mineralogical Magazine. { Tetrahedrite; Thorite. M. B. MONTAGU BROWNE. J Author of Practical Taxidermy; CoMcting Butterflies and Moths. 1 Taxidermy. M. Ba. THE HON. MAURICE BARING. f Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. War Correspondent for the Morning Post in Manchuria, 1904; and Special Correspondent in Russia, 1905-1908, J Taine and in Constantinople, 1909. Author of Landmarks in Russian Literature; With the Russians in Manchuria; A Year in Russia; &c. [ M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of the Fine Art Committee of the International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco- Thnrnvprnft William British Exhibition, London. Author of History of " Punch "; British Portrait- 1 Tnornyerolt> William Painting to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts R A • British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c. M. J. de G. MICHAEL JAN DE GOEJE. r See the biographical article: GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE. \ Thousand and one Nights. M. M. Bh. SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGGREE, K.C.I.E. r Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. Author i Takhtsingji. of History of the Constitution of the East India Company; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. r Tegea; Theodosius I.-III. ; Reader in Ancient History in London University. Lecturer in Greek in Birmingham J Theramenes' University, 1905-1908. I Thrasybulus! N. M. NORMAN M'LEAN, M.A. f Syriac Language* Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's J College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. B Llte N. M.* NEILL MALCOLM, D.S.O., F.R.G.S. J Th0mas °f Marga' Major, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. Served N.W. Frontier, India, 1897- f 1898; South Africa, 1899-1900; Somaliland, 1903-1904; British Mission to Fez, J. Tactics. 1905. Editor of The Science of War. N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Taboo; Socidte d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and\ Telepathy. Marriage in Australia; &c. 0. H. D. OSKAR HENRIK DUMRATH, PH.D. f Formerly Editor of foreign news in the Nya Dagligt AUehanda. \ Sweflen: History (in part). 0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. f Sweden: Geography and Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Assistant Secretary j Statistics; of the British Association. I TihA* (in A/rr/1 * liucl \in yUrtJ. Syr-Darya: River (in part); Syr-Darya: Province (in part); P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P.A. P. Gi. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LITT.D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I " Tambov (in part); Tatars (in part); Tiflis: Town (in part); Tobolsk: Government (in part) ; Tomsk: Government (in part). Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- "j T. logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology. P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. J FT. i / • ,\ Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. , 1 Temers (tn P"rt>- P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. r Lecturer in Regional Geography in the University of Cambridge. Formerly of the I Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites. -i. Sweden: Geology. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. P. M.* SIR PHILIP MAGNUS. f M.P. for the University of London. Superintendent and Secretary of the City and Guilds of London Institute. President of Council of College of Preceptors; Chair- J Technical Education. man of Secondary Schools Association. Member of the Royal Commission on 1 Technical Instruction, 1881-1884. Author of Industrial Education; &c. P. McC. PRIMROSE MCCONNELL, F.G.S. r Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer, j Thrashing. P. Vi. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. C See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. H Succession. R. A. N. REYNOLD ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M.A., LITT.D. r Lecturer in Persian in the University of Cambridge. Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Professor of Persian at University College, London. J Sufiism; Sunnites (in part). Author of Selected Poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz ; A Literary History of the ] Arabs; &c. j R. A. Sa. RALPH ALLEN SAMPSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Astronomer Royal for Scotland. Formerly Professor of Mathematics and _ Astronomy in the University of Durham, and Fellow of St John's College,.Cambridge. •< *un. Author of Tables of the Four Great Satellites of Jupiter ; &c. R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. r St John's College. Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- I Tiberias, ploration Fund. R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L. r_. ,., ,. A See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. n rart>- R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. f „ / • ,\ See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \ Swift» Jonathan (in part), R. Gn. SIR ROBERT GIFFEN, F.R.S. r_ See the biographical article: GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT. -j Taxation. R. H. C. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., Lrrr.D. (Oxon). f Testaments of the Three Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, and Fellow of Merton ' p b College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity J ratnarcBs; College, Dublin. Author and Editor of Book of Enoch; Book of Jubilees; Apoca- ] Testaments of the Twelve lypse of Baruch; Assumption of Moses; Ascension of Isaiah; Sec. Patriarchs. R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f Tarantula; Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ Tardigrada; Ticks. XIV R. J. M. R.L.* R. Ma. R. N. B. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. P. S. R. R. 6. A. C. S. BI. St G. L. F.-P. St G. S. S. K. S. N. T.As. T. A. A. T. A. C. T. de L. T. H. T. H. H.* RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. f Sussex, 3rd Earl of; Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at:Law. Formerly Editor of the St James s J Tandy, James Napper; Gazette (London). [ Temple, Earl. RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum of all Lands ; The Came A nitnals of Africa ; &c. REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, M.A., D.D. Tutor in Lancashire Independent College, Manchester. , r Swine; Tapir (in part); 01 j , eer ] AThe°be"erl Tarsier; Tiger (in part); [ Tillodontia; Titanotheriidae •< Theism; Theology. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1700; &c. Svane, Hans; Sweden: History (in part); Sweyn I.; Szechenyi, Istvan, Count; Szigligeti, Ede; Tarnowski, Jan; Tausen, Hans; Tessin, Count; Theodore I.-III. of Russia; Thokbly, Imre; Tisza, Kalman; Toll, Johan, Count; Tolstoy, Petr, Count. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. ~f Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, J Temnle (' * <) London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's\ mpie (in part). History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. REINHOLD ROST, C.I.E., LL.D. (1822-1896). r Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1863-1869. Librarian at the India Office, _, .. _ London, 1869-1893. Editor of H. H. Wilson's Essays on the Religions of the Hindus; 1 Tamils; Thugs. Hodgson's Essays on Indian Subjects; &c, STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. r Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and J Talmud Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In- scriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. f Thomson, Grimur; I Thoroddsen, Jon. SIGFUS BLSNDAL. Librarian of the University of Copenhagen. ST GEORGE LANE Fox-PiTT, M.R.A.S. Associate of King's College, London. Treasurer and Vice-President of the Moral J Theosoohv Oriental Education League and the International Moral Education Congress. ST GEORGE STOCK, M.A. r „ Pembroke College, Oxford. Lecturer in Greek in the University of Birmingham. •{ Infrapeutae; I Tobit, The Book of. STEN KONOW, PH.D. r Frat^^ SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D. See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. | Time, Standard. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., Lrrr.D. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 10,06. Member of the imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna. Suessula; Sulci; Surrentum; Sutri; Sybaris; Syracuse (in part); Taormina; Taranto; Tarentum; Tarquinii; Teggiano; Tergeste; Termini Imerese; Terracina; Tharros; Thurii; Tibur; Tiburtina, Via; Ticinum. j Templars (in part). THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER, M.A. Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. TIMOTHY AUGUSTINE COGHLAN, I.S.O. ^«£t,~GTerufor NewJ°uth W,ales- Government Statistician, New South Wales, 886-1905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth J Tasmania: Geography, Statistics iZnd A?™" °f Wates' Statislical Account of Australia and New Zea-\ and History. A. TERRIEN DE LACOUPERIE, Lirr.D. Formerly Professor of Indo-Chinese at University College, London. THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., Lrrr.D. See the biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS. j Theodoric. SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, KCMGKCIEDSc r B^J^*»!fMB^^»»miswAr* | Tibet (in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xv T. H. W. T. HUDSON WILLIAMS. f Professor of Greek in the University College of North Wales, Bangor. \ Tneogms Of Megara. T. L. B. SIR THOMAS LAUDER BRUNTON, Bart., M.D., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. f Consulting Physician to St Bartholomew's Hospital, London. Author of Modern "i Therapeutics. Therapeutics; Therapeutics of the Circulation; &c. (. T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., Sc.D. f Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, J —., «TI n Cambridge. Author of Apollonius of Perga; Treatise on Conic Sections; The 1 TheodosiUS of TnpollS. Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements ; &c. L T. M. L. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, M.A., D.D. f Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow. •< Thomas a Kempis. Author of Life of Luther; &c. L T. R. R. S. REV. THOMAS ROSCOE REDE STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. f Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor, of J Thvrostraca Worcester College, Oxford. Zoological Secretary of the Linnaean Society, 1903- 1 1907. Author of A History of Crustacea; The Naturalist of Cumbrae; &c. T. Se. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. (~ Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, I Swift, Jonathan (in part); University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of the 1 Tichborne Claimant. Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson ; &c. L V. W. Ch. VALENTINE WALBRAN CHAPMAN. { *V*£f)Sllgar Man«faclure «» W. Ay. WILFRID AIRY, M.lNST.C.E. f Ta-ho. Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Technical adviser to the Standards H Department of the Board of Trade. Author of Levelling and Geodesy; &c. I Switzerland: Geography, Government, &c., History and Literature; Tell, William; Thun (Town): W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of- the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. Thun, Lake of; Thurgau; Ticino (Canton); . Tirol; Toggenburg, The. W. A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. f SurPlice: Church of England; Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, 1 Templars (in part) ; Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. i Titles of Honour. W. B.* WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S. rT._ . Chairman of the Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain.-^ ""acolla Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c. [ Tile. W. B. B. W. BAKER BROWN. /«,,hma,in«, wr-n Lieut.-Colonel, Commanding Royal Engineers at Malta. \ Submarine Mines. W. B. S.* WILLIAM BARCLAY SQUIRE, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Assistant in charge of Printed Music, British Museum. Hon. Secretary of the J Purcell Society. Formerly Musical Critic of the Westminster Gazette, the Saturday ] Thomas, Arthur Goring. Review and the Globe. W. E. Co. RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, D.D. r Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, J Tait, Archbishop; London. Lecturer at Selwyn and St John's Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The } Tp<:tampn»iim nnmini Study of Ecclesiastical History ; Beginnings of English Christianity; &c. [ 1( uu' W. F. C. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. f cummarv jurisdiction- Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, \ ° London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). [ Summons; Sunday (Law). W. G. F. WILLIAM GEORGE FREEMAN. f Joint-author of Nature Teaching; The World's Commercial Products; &c. Joint- -I Tobacco. editor of Science Progress in the Twentieth Century. W. Hy. WILLIAM HENRY. r Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the) Swimmin" Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint-author of Swimming (Badminton Library) ; 1 &c. L W. H. F. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. /Tapir (in part); See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. \ Tiger (in part). W. H. P. WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK, M.A. (" Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Saturday Review, 1883-1894. Author-! Thackeray. of Lectures on French Poets; Impressions of Henry Irving; &c. W. J. B. REV. WILLIAM JACKSON BRODRIBB, M.A. r Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Rector of Wootton-Rivers, -I Tacitus (in Part). Wilts. [ W. L.* WALTER LEHMANN, M.D. (" Directorial Assistant of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. Conducted J Toitecs Exploring Expedition in Mexico and Central America, 1907-1909. Author of | publications on Mexican and Central American Archaeology. W. McD. WILLIAM McDouGALL, M.A. Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly Fellow -I Suggestion, of St John's College, Cambridge. XVI W. M. R. W. M. Ra. W. N. S. W. P. A. W.RI. W. R. S. W. Sb. W. S. R. W. W. R.* W. Y. S. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. Sec the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY, Lirr.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: RAMSAY, SIR W. MITCHELL. / Tintoretto; I Titian. ; Tarsus. WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. Member .{ Sunshine, of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cam- bridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1906; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author of Text-Book of Practical Physics; &c. LlEUT.-COLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S. Chief-Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the I B__-_|-._. r j, Geographical Board of Canada. Past President of the Canadian Society of Civil | Engineers. WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., Lirr.D. Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Brereton Reader in Classics, in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. Fellow of the British ' Academy. President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age of Greece ; &c. Thrace: Ancient Peoples. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article : SMITH, W. ROBERTSON. WILLIAM SHARP. See the biographical article: SHARP, WILLIAM. WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO. f Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the -| J Teraphim (in part). - Thoreau, Henry David. Present Period ; &c. WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG. Tallis, Thomas. J Toledo, Councils of. J Terence (in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Succession Duty. Succinic Acid. Suez Canal. Suffolk, Earls and Dukes of. Suffolk. Sulphonic Acids. Sulphur. Sumatra. Sunderland. Sundew. Sunflsh. Sunstroke. Surat. Surgical Instruments and Appliances. Surrey. Sussex, Earls of. Sussex. Sutherland, Earls Dukes of. Swabia. Sweating-Sickness. Swithun, St. Sydney (N.S.W.). Syllogism. Syracuse (N.Y.). Sze-ch'uen. Synagogue. Table. Tahiti. and Tampa. Tantalum. Tarragona. Tattooing. Taunton. Tellurium. Tenby. Tenerifle. Tennessee. Tennis. Tent. Test Acts. Tewkesbury. Texas. Thallium. Thames. Theodolite. Theseus. Thorium. Thuringia. Tibbu. Tierra del Fuego. Tiglath-Pileser. Timor. Tin. Tipperary. Titanium. Togoland. Toledo. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVI SUBMARINE MINES. A submarine mine is a weapon of war used in the attack and defence of harbours and anchorages. It may be defined as " A charge of explosives, moored at or beneath the surface of the water, intended by its explosion to put out of action without delay a hostile vessel of the class it is intended to act against." It differs from the torpedo (q.v.) in being incapable of movement (except in the special form of drifting mines, which are not moored, but move with the tide or current). But this subdivision into two distinct classes was not made till 1870. Prior to that date the teim " torpedo " was used for all explosive charges fired in the water. Submarine mines may be divided into two main classes, con- trollable and uncontrollable, or, as they are often classified, " electrical " or " mechanical." In the first class the method of firing is by electricity, the source of the electric power whether by battery or dynamo being contained in a firing station on shore and connected to the mines by insulated cables. By simply switching off the electricity in the firing station, such mines are rendered inert and entirely harmless. In the second class, the means of firing are contained in the mine itself, the source of power being a small electric battery, or being obtained from a pistol, spring or suspended weight. In all mines of this class the impulse which actuates the firing gear is given by a ship or other floating object bumping against the mine. When mechanical mines have once been set for firing they are thus dangerous to friend and foe alike. Safety arrange- ments are employed to prevent the firing apparatus working while the mine is being laid, and clockwork is sometimes added to render the mine inactive after a certain definite time or in case the mine breaks away from its mooring. Their principal advantages, as compared with the electrically controlled mines, are cheapness and rapidity of laying. " Controllable " mines are absolutely under the control of the operator on shore, their condition is always accurately known, and if any break adrift not only is the fact at once known but the mines themselves are harmless. Another advantage is that when fired by " observa- tion " as described below, they are placed at depths which will be well below the bottom of any vessels passing through the mine field. They can thus be used in channels which have to be kept open for traffic during hostilities. Electrical mines take rather longer to prepare and lay out than the other class, as the electrical cables have to be laid and jointed, and they require rather more skill and training in the operators employed to lay and fire the mines. Such mines represent the highest development of this form of warfare, and the details given below refer mainly to this class of mine. Electrical mines are arranged on two systems according to the method of ascertaining the proper moment to apply the firing XXVI. I current to the mine cables. These methods are by " observa- tion " or by " circuit closer." The " observation " system depends on two careful observa- tions made by an operator on shore, one of the exact position in which the mines are laid, the other of the track of hostile ships passing over the mine field. The position of the mines when laid is marked on a special chart, on which the track of ships crossing the mine field can also be plotted. When the track is seen to be crossing the position of a mine, a switch is closed on shore and the mine is fired. To allow for errors in observation such mines are fitted with large charges of explosive and are usually arranged in lines of two, three or four mines placed across the channel, all the mines in a line being fired together. Observa- tion mines are placed either resting on the bottom or moored at depths which are well below the bottom of any friendly vessels and (except that anchoring in the mine field must be forbidden for fear of injury to cables) such mines offer no obstruc- tion to friendly traffic. In the " circuit closer " or " C.C." system, each mine contains a small piece of apparatus which is set in action by the blow of a vessel or other object against the mine. When set in action, this apparatus completes an electrical circuit in the mine, through which the mine can be fired, if the main switch on shore is closed. If it is not wished to fire, the C.C. is restored to its ordinary condition either automatically by a spring in the mine, or by an electrical device operated from the shore. Such mines are necessarily placed near the surface, and are to this extent an interference with friendly traffic. A vessel passing by mistake through a mine field of this class would run no risk of an explosion while the mines are inactive, but might do some damage to the mines. This class of mine is used in side channels which it is intended to close entirely, or to reduce the width of navigable channels where too wide to be defended by observation mines. Their principal advantage is that if the firing switch is closed they are effective in fog or mist, when observation mines could not be worked, and when the guns of the defence would be equally out of action. As they are fired only when close against the side of a ship, the charge can be comparatively small and the mines themselves are handy and easy to lay. Compared with observation mines they use much less cable, as the action of the C.C. is such that only the mine which is struck can be fired. Several mines of this class can therefore share one cable from the shore, though in practice details of mooring and arrangement limit the number connected to one cable to four. A set of mines on one cable is referred to as a " group." The arrangements for firing the mines are contained in a firing station on shore, in which is the battery or other source of SUBSIDY— SUCCESSION electrical power for firing, and the necessary apparatus for testing the system of mines, which is usually done daily. To let the operator in the firing station know when the C.C. of a mine has been struck and the mine is ready to fire, a small electrical apparatus is provided in the firing station for each group of mines. This arrangement strikes a bell when the C.C. is worked and also closes a break in the firing circuit. The operator can then close the main switch and fire the mine, or if acting on the order to "fire all mines that signal" he has already closed his main switch, the signalling apparatus, in the act of striking the bell, completes the firing circuit. A similar piece of apparatus is connected to each observing instrument, the completion of the circuit of any line at the observing station then gives a signal in the firing station and the firing circuit is completed. The firing station can be on a vessel moored near the mine field, but is more usually on shore, where it can be made abso- lutely secure against any form of attack. But the observing stations must be on shore to give stability to the observing instruments, they cannot be entirely protected as they must have a small opening facing the mine field, but can be made very inconspicuous. Any explosive can be used in submarine mines, provided adequate means are taken to explode the charge, but the explo- sive which is easiest to handle and is in most general use is wet gun-cotton with a small dry primer and detonator to start ignition. The detonators for electrical mines are on the " low tension " system, that is, firing is effected by the heating of a small length of wire called a " bridge," round which is placed a priming which ignites and detonates a small charge of fulminate of mercury. The charge is contained in a steel mine-case, which has an " apparatus " inside to contain the electrical arrangements and the C.C. when used. Cases for observation mines are usually cylindrical in shape for mines to rest on the bottom and spherical for buoyant mines. The weight of charge is about 500 ft and the size of a buoyant case for this charge would be four feet in diameter. Cases for contact mines are spherical, about 39 in. in diameter, and can hold 100 ft of gun- cotton. They are always buoyant. Buoyancy is provided for by an air-space inside the case. Buoyant cases are moored to a heavy weight or " sinker," the connexion being by a steel wire rope, or in electrical mines, the cable itself. The cable is care- fully insulated and protected with a layer of steel wires. An earth return is used for the electrical circuit. The employment of mines in any defence must depend entirely on the general character of the defence adopted, which will itself depend on the size and importance of the harbour to be defended and other details (see COAST DEFENCE). The role of mines in a defence is to act as an obstacle to detain ships under fire and compel them to engage the artillery of the defence. Thus mines find their greatest usefulness in the defence of har- bours with long channels of approach. Mine fields can be de- stroyed by " creeping " for and cutting the electric cables, by " sweeping " for the mines themselves with long loops of chain or rope or by destroying the mines with "countermines." To guard against any of these, the mine field should be protected by gun fire and lit at night by electric lights. As vessels sunk by mines may obstruct the channel, mines should not be used in very narrow channels. Although the scientific development of submarine mining is the work of the last fifty years, attempts to use drifting charges against ships and bridges are recorded as early as the i6th century. Mines were used by the Americans in 1777, and in 1780 Robert Fulton produced an explosive machine which he called a " torpedo," and which was experimented with, not very successfully, up to 1815. In 1834 the Russians used mechanical mines in the Baltic, but without any marked success. The first application of electricity to the explosion of sub- merged charges was made by Sir Charles Pasley in the destruc- tion of wrecks in the Thames and of the wreck of the " Royal George " at Spithead in 1839 and subsequent years. The first military use of electrically-fired mines was made in the American Civil War of 1861-65 when several vessels were sunk or damaged by mines or torpedoes. From this date onwards most European nations experimented with mines, and they were actually used during the Franco-German War of 1870, the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 and the Spanish-American War of 1898. But the most interesting example of mine warfare was in the attack and defence of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War (q.v.) of 1904-05 Both sides used mechanical mines only, and both suffered heavy losses from the mine warfare. Mines and tor- pedoes were first introduced into the English service about 1863, defence mines being placed in the charge of the Royal Engineers, while torpedoes were developed by the Royal Navy. Up to 1904 there were mine defences at most of the British ports, but in that year the responsibility of mines was placed on the navy, and since then the mine defences have been much reduced. (W. B. B.) SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops, aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind or in reserve "), an aid, subvention, assistance granted especially in money. The word has a particular use in economic history and practice. In English history it is the general term for a tax granted to the king by parliament, and so distinguished from those dues, such as the customs dues, which were raised by the royal prerogative; of these subsidies there were many varieties; such was the subsidy in excess of the customs on wool, leather, wine or cloth exported or imported by aliens, later extended to other articles and to native exporters and importers (see TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE); there was also the subsidy which in the i4th century took the place of the old feudal levies. Apart from this application the term, in modern times, is particularly applied to the pecuniary assistance by means of bounties, &c., given by the state to industrial undertakings (see BOUNTY). Subsidies granted by the state to literary, dramatic or other artistic institutions, societies, &c., are generally styled " subventions " (Lat. subvenire, to come to the aid of). SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after) the act of succeeding or following, as of events, objects, places in a series, &c., but particularly, in law, the transmission or passing of rights from one to another. In every system of law provision has to be made for a readjust- ment of things or goods on the death of the human beings who owned and enjoyed them. Succession to rights may be considered from two points of view: in some ways they depend on the personality of those who are concerned with them: if you hire a servant, you acquire a claim against a certain person and your claim will disappear on his death. But personal relations are commonly implicated in the arrangement of pro- perty: if a person borrows money, the creditor expects to be paid even should the debtor die, and the actual payment will depend to a great extent on the rules as to inheritance. Succes- sion, in the sense of the partition or redistribution of the pro- perty of a former owner is, in modern systems of law, the subject of many rules. Such rules may be based on the will of a de- ceased person. They will be found in such articles as ADMINIS- TRATION; ASSETS; EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS; INHERI- TANCE; INTESTACY; LEGACY; WILL; &c. There are cases, however, in which a will cannot be expressed; this eventuality is discussed in the present article, and there can be no doubt that it is the most characteristic one from the point of view of social conditions. It represents the view of society at large as to what ought to be the normal course of succession in the readjustment of property after the death of a citizen. We shall dwell chiefly on the customs of succession among the nations of Aryan stock. Other customs are noticed in the articles on VILLAGE COMMUNITIES; MAHOMMEDAN LAW; &c. We have to start from a distinction between personal goods and the property forming the economic basis of existence for the family which is strongly expressed in early law. War booty, pro- ceeds of hunting, clothes and ornaments, implements fashioned by personal skill, are taken to belong to a man in a more personal way than the land on which he dwells or the cattle of a herd. SUCCESSION It is characteristic that even in the strict law of paternal power formulated by the Romans an unemancipated son was protected in his rights in regard to things acquired in the camp (peculium castrense) and later on this protection spread to other chattels (peculium quasi-castrense) . The personal character of this kind of property has a decisive influence on the modes of succession to it. This part of the inheritance is widely considered in early law as still in the power of the dead even after demise. We find that many savage tribes simply destroy the personal belongings of the dead: this is done by several Australian and Negro tribes (Post, Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz, pp. 174-5) . Sometimes this rule is modified in the sense that the goods remaining after deceased persons have to be taken away by strangers, which leads to curious customs of looting the house of the deceased. Such customs were prevalent, for example, among the North American Indians of the Delaware and Iro- quois tribes. Evidently the nearer relations dare not take over such things on account of a tabu rule, while strangers may appropriate them, as it were, by right of conquest. The continuance of the relation of the deceased to his own things gives rise in most cases to provisions made for the dead out of his personal succession. The habit of putting arms, victuals, clothes and ornaments in the grave seems almost universal, and there can be no doubt that the idea underlying such usages consists in the wish to provide the deceased with all matters necessary to his existence after death. A very char- acteristic illustration of this conception may be given from the customs of the ancient Russians, as described about 921 by the Arabian traveller Ibn Fadhlan. The whole of the personal property was divided into three parts: one-third went to the family, the second third was used for making clothes and other ornaments for the dead, while the third was spent in carousing on the day when the corpse was cremated. The ceremony itself consisted in the following: the corpse was put into a boat and was dressed up in the most gorgeous attire. Intoxicating drinks, fruit, bread and meat were put by its side; a dog was cut into two parts, which were thrown into the boat. Then, all the weapons of the dead man were brought in, as well as the flesh of two horses, a cock and a chicken. The concubine of the de- ceased was also sacrificed, and ultimately all these objects were burned in a huge pile, and a mound thrown up over the ashes. This description is the more interesting because it starts from a division of the goods of the deceased, one part of them being affected, as it were, to his personal usage. This rule continues to be observed in Germanic law in later times and became the starting point of the doctrine of succession to personal property in English law. According to Glanville (vii. 5, 4) the chattels of the deceased have to be divided into three equal parts, of which one goes to his heir, one to his wife and one is reserved to the deceased himself. The same reser- vation of the third to the deceased himself is observed in Magna Charta (c. 26) and in Bracton's statement of Common Law (fol. 60), but in Christian surroundings the reservation of " the dead man's part " was taken to apply to the property which had to be spent for his soul and of which, accordingly, the Church had to take care. This lies at the root of the com- mon law doctrine observed until the passing of the Court of Probate Act 1857. On the strength of this doctrine the bishop was the natural administrator of this part of the personalty of the deceased. The succession to real property, if we may use the English legal expression, is not governed by such considerations or the needs of the dead. Roughly speaking, three different views may be taken as to the proper readjustment in such cases. Taking the principal types in a logical sequence, which differs from the historical one, we may say that the aggregate of things and claims relinquished by a deceased person may: (i) pass to relatives or other persons who stood near him in a way deter- mined by law. Should several persons of the kind stand equally near in the eye of the law the consequence would be a division of the inheritance. The personal aspect of succession rules in such systems of inheritance. (2) The deceased may be considered as a subordinate member of a higher organism — a kindred, a village, a state, &c. In such a case there can be no succession proper as there has been no individual property to begin with. The cases of succession will be a relapse of certain goods used by the member of a community to that community and a consequent rearrangement of rights of usage. The law of succession will again be constructed on a personal basis, but this basis will be supplied not by the single individual whose death has had to be recorded but by some community or union to which this individual belonged. (3) The aggregate of goods and claims constituting what is commonly called an inheritance may be considered as a unit having an existence and an object of its own. The circumstance of the death of an individual owner will, as in case 2, be treated as an accidental fact. The unity of the inheritance and the social part played by it will con- stitute the ruling considerations in the arrangement of succession. The personal factor will be subordinated to the real one. In practice pure forms corresponding to these main concep- tions occur seldom, and the actual systems of succession mostly appear as combinations of these various views. We shall try to give briefly an account of the following arrangements: (i) the joint family in so far as it bears on succession; (2) voluntary associations among co-heirs; (3) division of inheri- tance; (4) united succession in the shape of primogeniture and of junior right. The large mass of Hindu juridical texts representing customs and doctrines ranging over nearly 5000 years contains many indications as to the existence of a joint family which was considered as the corporate owner of property and therefore did not admit in principle of the opening of succession through the death of any of its members. The father or head of such a joint family was in truth only the manager of its property during lifetime, and though on his demise this power and right of management had to be regulated anew, the property itself could not be said to pass by succession: it remained as formerly in the joint family itself. In stating this abstract doctrine we have to add that our evidence shows us in practice only characteristic consequences and fragments of it, but that we have not the means of observing it directly in a consistent and complete shape during the comparatively recent epochs which are reflected in the evidence. It is even a question whether such a doctrine was ever absolutely enforced in regard to chattels: even in the earliest period of Hindu law articles of personal apparel and objects acquired by personal will and strength fell to a great extent under the conception of separate property. Gains of science, art and craft are mentioned in early instances as subject to special ownership and corresponding rules of personal succession are framed in regard to them (Jolly, Tagore lectures on Partition, Inheritance and Adoption, 94). But on the other hand there are certain categories of movable goods which even in later law are considered as belong- ing to the family community and incapable of partition, e.g. water, prepared food, roads, vehicles, female slaves, property destined for pious uses and sacrifices, books. When law became rationalized these things had to be sold in order that the pro- ceeds of the sale should be divided, but originally they seem to have been regarded as owned by the joint family though used by its single members. And as to immovables — land and houses — they were demonstrably excluded in ancient customary law from partition among co-heirs. In Greek law the most drastic expression of the joint family system is to be found in the arrangements of Spartan households, where brothers clustered round the eldest or " keeper of the hearth"1 (taTiairaniov) , and not only the management of family property but even marriages were dependent on the unity of the shares and on the necessity of keeping down the offspring of the younger brothers. With the Romans there are hardly any traces of a primitive family community excluding succession, but the Celtic tribal system was to a great extent based on this fundamental conception (Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales). 1 The term illustrates the intimate connexion between inheritance and household religion in ancient Aryan custom. SUCCESSION During three generations the offspring of father, grandfather and great-grandfather held together in regard to land. The consequence was that, although separate plots and houses were commonly reserved for the uses of the smaller families included within the larger unit, the death of the principal brought about an equalization of shares first per slirpes and ultimately per capita until the final break-up of the community when it reached the stage of the great-grandsons of the original founder. But the most elaborate system of family ownership is to be observed in the history of the latest comers among the Aryan races — the Slavs. In the backward mountain regions which they occupied in the Balkan Peninsula and in the wilderness of the forests and moors of Eastern Europe they developed many characteristic tribal institutions and, among these, the joint family, the Zadruga, inokoshtina. The huge family communities of the southern Slavs have been described at length by recent observers, and there can be no doubt that their roots go back to a distant past (see VILLAGE COMMUNITIES). There is no room in them for succession proper: what has to be provided for is the con- tinuity of business management by elders and the repartition of rights of usage and maintenance, a repartition largely depen- dent on varying customs and on the policy of the above-men- tioned elders. In Russia the so-called large family appears as a much less extensive application of the same idea. It extends rarely over more than three generations, but even as a cluster of members gathering around a grandfather or a great-uncle it presents an arrangement which hampers greatly private enter- prise and staves off succession until the moment when the great household breaks up between the descendants of a great-grand- father. In Germanic law we catch a glimpse of a state of things in which side relations were not admitted to succession at all. The Prankish Edict of Chilperic (A.D. 571) tells us that if some- body died without leaving sons or daughters, his brother was to succeed him and not his neighbours (non vicini). This has to be construed as a modification of the older rule according to which the neighbours succeeded and not the brother. Under " neighbours " we cannot understand merely people connected with a person by proximity of settlement, but rather his kinsmen in their usual capacity of neighbours. The fact that kinsmen forming a settlement have precedence of such near relations as the brothers is characteristic enough, especially, as even the succession of sons and daughters is mentioned in a way which shows that there was still some doubt whether neighbouring kinsmen should not take inheritance instead of the latter. These are systems of a very archaic arrangement based on a close tribal community between the members of a kindred. Such a community is not apparent in later legal custom, but there are many signs of a close union between members of the same family. The law of Scania, a province of southern Sweden, shows us a group settled around a grandfather. His sons even when married hold part of the property under him and it is with some difficulty that they and their wives succeed in separating some of the goods acquired by personal work or brought in by marriage from the rest of the household property (Scanian Law, Danish Text i. 5). The same arrangement appears in Lombard law as regards brothers who remain settled in a common house (Edict of Rothari c. 167). Of course, in all such cases, there could be no real inheritance and succession, but merely the stepping in of the next generation into the rights and duties of the representative of an older generation on the latter's demise. In legal terminology it is a case of accretion and not of succession. The next stage in the development of succession is presented by an arrangement which was common in Germany, viz. by the management of property under the rule of so-called Ganerb- schaft. Ganerben is the same as the Latin coheredes, com- participes, consortes. A capitulary of 818 mentions such com- munities of heirs holding in common (cf. Boretius Capitularia, i. 282). While the community lasted none of the shareholders could dispose of any part of the property by his single will. Legally and economically all transactions had to proceed from common consent and common resolve. This did not preclude the possibility of any one among the shareholders claiming his own portion, in which case part of the property had to be meted out to him according to fair computation (swascara). There was no legal constraint over the shareholders to remain in common: division could be brought about either by common consent or by claims of individuals, and yet the constant occur- rence of these settlements of co-heirs shows that as a matter of fact it was more profitable to keep together and not to break up the unit of property by division. The customary union of co-heirs appears in this way as a corrective of the strict legal principle of equal rights between heirs of the same degree. In English practice the joint management of co-heirs is not so fully described, but there can be no doubt that under the older Saxon rule admitting heirs of the same degree to equal rights in suc- cession the interests of economic efficiency were commonly pre- served by the carrying on of common husbandry without any realization of the concurrent claims which would have broken up the object of succession. This accounts for the fact that notwithstanding the prevalence among the early English of the rule admitting all the sons or heirs in the same position to equal shares in the inheritance, the organic units of hides, yardlands, &c. are kept up in the course of centuries. In the management of so-called gavelkind succession in Kent partition was legally possible and came sometimes to be effected, but there was the customary reaction against it in the shape of keeping up the " yokes " and " sulungs." A trace of the same kind of union between co-heirs appears in the so-called parage communities so often mentioned in Domesday Book. In all these cases the principle of union and joint manage- ment is kept up by purely economic means and considerations. The legal possibility of partition is admitted by the side of it. It is interesting to watch two divergent lines of further develop- ment springing from this common source; on the one side we see the full realization of individual right resulting in frequent divisions; on the other side we watch the rise of legal restraints on subdivision resulting in the establishment, in respect of certain categories of property, of rules excluding the plurality of heirs for the sake of preserving the unity of the household. The first system is, of course, most easily carried out in countries where individualistic types of husbandry prevail. In Europe it is especially prevalent in the south with its intense cultivation of the arable and its habits of wine and olive growing. We shall not wonder, therefore, that the unrestricted subdivision among heirs is represented most completely by Roman law. Not to speak of the fact that already in the XII. Tables the principal mode of inheritance was considered to be inheritance by will while intestate succession came in as a subsidiary ex- pedient, we have to notice that there is no check on the dis- persion of property among heirs of the same degree. The only survival of a regime of family community may be found in the distinction between heredes sui (heirs of their own) and heredes exlranei (outside heirs of the deceased). The first entered by their own right and took possession of property which had belonged to them potentially even during their ancestor's life. The latter drew their claims from their relationship to the • deceased and this did not give them a direct hold on the property . in question. Apart from that the civil law of ancient Rome favoured complete division and the same principle is represented in all European legislation derived from Roman law or strongly influenced by it. Sometimes, as in the French Code Civil, even the wish of the owner cannot alter the course of such succession as no person can make a will depriving any of his children of their legal share. In full contrast with this mode of succession prevailing in romanized countries we find the nations proceeding from Germanic stock and strongly influenced by feudalism developing two different kinds of restraints on subdivision. In Scandi- . navian law this point of view is expressed by the Norwegian customs as to Odal. The principal estates of the country, which, according to the law of the Gulathing have descended through five generations in the same family, cannot be dispersed and SUCCESSION DUTY alienated at pleasure. They are considered as rightly belong- ing to the kindred with which a historical connexion has been established. In order to keep these estates within the kindred they are to descend chiefly to men: women are admitted to property in them only in exceptional cases. Originally it is only the daughter of a man who has left no sons and the sister of one who has left no children and no brothers that are admitted to take Odal as if they were men. Nieces and first-cousins are admitted in the sense that they have to pass the property to their nearest male heir. They may, in certain eventualities, be bought out by the nearest male relative. A second peculiarity of Odal consists in the right of relations descending from one of the common ancestors to prevent strangers from acquiring Odal estate. Any holder of such an estate who wants to sell it in its entirety or in portion has first to apply te his relatives and they may acquire the estate at the price proposed by a stranger less one-fifth. Even if no relative has taken advantage of this privilege an Odal estate sold to a stranger may be bought back into the family by compulsory redemption if the relatives subsequently find the means and have the wish to resort to such redemption. Odal right does not curtail the claims of the younger sons or of any heirs in a similar position. As a matter of fact, however, customary succession in Norwegian peasant families sets great price on holding the property of the household well together. It is keenly felt that a gaard (farm) ought not to be parcelled up into smaller holdings, and in the common case of several heirs succeeding to the farm, they generally make up among themselves who is to remain in charge of the ancestral household: the rest are compensated in money or helped to start on some other estate or perhaps in a cottage by the side of the principal house. In medieval England, France and Ger- many the same considerations of economic efficiency are felt as regards the keeping up of united holdings, and it may be said that the lower we get in the scale of property the stronger these considerations become. If it is possible, though not perhaps profitable, to divide the property of a large farm, it becomes almost impossible to break-up the smaller units — so-called yardlands and oxgangs. Through being parcelled up into small plots, land loses in value, and, as to cattle, it is impossible to divide one ox or one horse in specie without selling them. No wonder that we find practices and customs of united suc- cession arising in direct contradiction with the ancient rule that all heirs of the same degree should be admitted to equal shares. Glanville mentions expressly that the socagers of his time held partly by undivided succession and partly by divided inherit- ance. The relations of feudalism and serfdom contributed strongly towards creating such individual tenancies. It was certainly in the interest of the lord that his men, whether holding a military fief or an agricultural farm, should not weaken the value of their tenancies by dispersing the one or the other among heirs. But apart from these interests of over-lords there was the evident self-interest of the tenants themselves and therefore the point of view of unification of holdings is by no means confined to servile tenements or to military fiefs. The question whether the successor should be the eldest son or the youngest son is a secondary one. The latter practice was very prevalent all through Europe and pro- duced in England what is termed the Borough English rule. The quaint name has been derived from the contrast in point of succession between the two parts of the borough of Nottingham. The French burgesses transmitted their tenements by primogeniture, while in the case of the English tenants the youngest sons succeeded. A usual explanation of this passage of the holdings to the youngest is found in the fact that the youngest son remains longest in his father's house, while the elder brothers have opportunities of going out into the world at a time when the father is still alive and able to take care of his land. This is well in keeping with the view that customs of united succession arise in connexion with compensa- tion provided for co-heirs waiving their claims in regard to settlement in the original household. The succession of the youngest appears also very characteristic in so far as it illustrates the break up into small tenancies, as the youngest in the family is certainly not a fit representative of hierarchy and authority and could not have been meant to rule anything but his own restricted household. One more feature of the ancient law of succession has to be noticed in conclusion, viz. the exclusion of women from inheritance in land. There can be no doubt that as regards movable goods women held property and transmitted it on a par with males right from the earliest time. According to Germanic conception personal ornaments and articles of household furni- ture are specially effected to their use and follow a distinct line of succession from woman to woman (Gerade). Norse law puts women and men on the same footing as to all forms of property equated to " movable money " (Losore); but as to land there is a prevalent idea that men should be privileged. Women are admitted to a certain extent, but always placed behind men of equal degree. Frankish and Lombard law originally excluded women from inheritance in land, and this exclusion seems as ancient as the patriarchial system itself, whatever we may think about the position of affairs in prehistoric times when rules of matriarchy were prevalent. A common-sense explanation of one side of this doctrine is tendered by the law of the Thurin- gians (Lex Anglorum et Werinorum,c. 6). It is stated there that inheritance in land goes with the duty of taking revenge for the homicide of relatives and with the power of bearing arms. One of the most potent adversaries of this system of exclusion proved to be the Church. It favoured all through the view that land should be transmitted in the same way as money or chattels. A Frankish formula (Marculf) shows us a father who takes care to endow his daughter with a piece of land according to natural affection in spite of the strict law of his tribe. Such instruments were strongly backed by the Church, and the view that women should be admitted to hold land on certain occasions had made its way in England as early as Anglo-Saxon times. AUTHORITIES. — Mayne, Hindu Law and Usage (1878); Julius Jolly, Outlines of a History of the Hindu Law of Partition, Inheritance and Adoption (Tagpre law lectures) (Calcutta, 1883); B. W. Leist, Altarisches jus Civile (1892); F. Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales (2nd ed., 1904) ; the same, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (1902) ; Arbois de Jubainville, La Famille cellique (1906) ; A. Heusler, Institutionen des deutschen Privatrechts, i. (1885); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (vol. i., and. ed., 1907) ; Jul. Picker, Unter- suchungen zur Erbepfolge (Innsbruck, 1891 ft.); Kraus, Sitte und Brauch der Sud-Slaven; Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, ii. (1895) ; Kenny, Law of Primogeniture (1878) ; P. Vinogradoff, The Growth of the Manor (1905); Brandt, Forelaesninger om norsk Retshistorie Kristiania (1880); Boden, "Das Odalsrecht " in the Zeitschrift der Savignystiftung fur Rechtsgeschichte (Ger. Abth. xxiii.); H. Brunner, "Der Totentheil " in the same Zeitschrift (Ger. Abth. xix.); L. Mitteis, Romisches Privatrecht (1908), vol. i.; Fustel de Coulanges, La CM antique (4th ed., 1872). (P. Vi.) SUCCESSION DUTY, in the English fiscal system, "a tax placed on the gratuitous acquisition of property which passes on the death of any person, by means of a transfer from one person (called the predecessor) to another person (called the successor)." In order properly to understand the present state of the English law it is necessary to describe shortly the state of affairs prior to the Finance Act 1894 — an act which effected a considerable change in the duties payable and in the mode of assessment of those duties. The principal act which first imposed a succession duty in England was the Succession Duty Act 1853. By that act a duty varying from i to 10 % according to the degree of con- sanguinity between the predecessor and successor was imposed upon every succession which was defined as " every past or future disposition of property by reason whereof any person has or shall become beneficially entitled to any property, or the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying after the time appointed for the commencement of this act, either immediately or after any interval, either certainly or contin- gently, and either originally or by way of substitutive limitation and every devolution by law of any beneficial interest in pro- perty, or the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying after the time appointed for the commencement of this act to SUCCINIC ACID any other person in possession or expectancy." The property which is liable to pay the duty is in realty or leasehold estate in the United Kingdom and personalty — not subject to legacy duty — which the beneficiary claims by virtue of English, Scottish or Irish law. Personalty in England bequeathed by a person domiciled abroad is not subject to succession duty. Successions of a husband or a wife, successions where the princi- pal value is under £100, and individual successions under £20, are exempt from duty. Leasehold property and personalty directed to be converted into real estate are liable to succession, not to legacy duty. Special provision is made for the collection of duty in the cases of joint tenants and where the successor is also the predecessor. The duty is a first charge on property, but if the property be parted with before the duty is paid the liability of the successor is transferred to the alienee. It is, therefore, usual in requisitions on title before conveyance, to demand for the protection of the purchaser the production of receipts for succession duty, as such receipts are an effectual protection notwithstanding any suppression or misstatement in the account on the footing of which the duty was assessed or any insufficiency of such assessment. The duty is by this act directed to be assessed as follows: on personal property, if the successor takes a limited estate, the duty is assessed on the principal value of the annuity or yearly income estimated according to the period during which he is entitled to receive the annuity or yearly income, and the duty is payable in four yearly instalments free from interest. If the successor takes absolutely he pays in a lump sum duty on the principal value. On real property the duty is payable in eight half-yearly instal- ments without interest on the capital value of an annuity equal to the annual value of the property. Various minor changes were made. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1881, personal estates under £300 were exempted. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1888 an additional £% was charged on successions already paying i% and an additional ij% on successions paying more than i %. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1889 an additional duty of i% called estate duty was payable on successions over £10,000. The Finance Acts 1894 and 1909 effected large changes in the duties payable on death (for which see ESTATE DUTY; LEGACY). As regards the succession duties they enacted that payment of the estate duties thereby created should include payment of the additional duties mentioned above. Estates under £1000 (£2000 in the case of widow or child of deceased) are exempted from payment of any succession duties. The succession duty payable under the Succession Duty Act 1853 was in all cases to be calculated according to the principal value of the property, i.e. its selling value, and though still payable by instalments interest at 3% is chargeable. The additional succession duties are still payable in cases where the estate duty is not charged, but such cases are of small importance and in practice are not as a rule charged. United States. — The United States imposed a succession duty by the War Revenue Act of 1898 on all legacies or distributive shares of personal property exceeding $10,000. It is a tax on the privilege of succession. Devises or distributions of land are not affected by it. The rate of duty runs from 75 cents on the $100 to $5 on the $100, if the legacy or share in question does not exceed $25,000. On those of over that value the rate is multiplied Ij times on estates up to $100,000, twofold on those from $100,000 to $500,000, 2j times on those from $500,000 to a million, and threefold for those exceeding a million. This statute has been supported as constitutional by the Supreme Court. Many of the states also impose succession duties, or transfer taxes; generally, however, on collateral and remote successions; sometimes progressive, according to the amount of the succession. The state duties generally touch real estate successions as well as those to personal property. If a citizen of state A owns registered bonds of a corporation chartered by state B, which he has put for safe keeping in a deposit vault in state C, his estate may thus have to pay four succession taxes, one to state A, to which he belongs and which, by legal fiction, is the seat of all his personal property; one to state B, for permitting the transfer of the bonds to the legatees on the books of the corporation; one to state C, for allowing them to be removed from the deposit vault for that purpose; and one to the United States. SUCCINIC ACID, C2IL.(CO,H)2. Two acids torresponding to this empirical formula are known — namely ethylene suc- cinic acid, HOsC-CHj-Crk-COzH and ethylidene succinic acid CHrCH(CO2H)j. Ethylene succinic acid occurs in amber, in various resins and lignites, in fossilized wood, in many members of the natural orders of Papaveraceae and Compositae, in unripe grapes, urine and blood. It is also found in the thymus gland of calves and in the spleen of cattle. It may be prepared by the oxidation of fats and of fatty acids by nitric acid, and is also a product of the fermentation of malic and tartaric acids. It is usually "obtained by the distillation of amber, or by the fermentation of calcium malate or ammonium tartrate. Synthetically it may be obtained by reducing malic or tartaric acids with hydriodic acid (R. Schmitt, Ann., 1860, 114, p. 106; V. Dessaignes, ibid., 1860, 115, p. 120; by reducing fumaric and maleic acids with sodium amalgam; by heating bromacetic acid with silver to 130° C.; in small quantity by the oxidation of acetic acid with potassium persulphate (C. Moritz and R. Wolffenstein, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 2534); by the hydrolysis of succinonitrile (from ethylene dibromide) C2KU->C2IIC2H4(COzH)J; by the hydrolysis of /3-cyanpropionic ester; and by the condensation of sodiomalonic ester with monochloracetic ester and hydrolysis of the resulting ethane tricarboxylic ester (RC^C^CH- CHj- CO2R; this method is applicable to the preparation of substituted succinic acids. It is also produced by the electrolysis of a concentrated solution of potassium ethyl malonate. It crystallizes in prisms or plates which melt at 185° C. and boil at 235° C. with partial conversion into the anhydride. It is readily soluble in water. Aqueous solutions of the acid are decomposed in sunlight by uranium salts, with evolution of carbon dioxide and the formation of propionic acid. Potassium permanganate, in acid solution, oxidizes it to carbon dioxide and water. The sodium salt on distillation with phosphorus trisulphide gives thiophene. The esters of the acid condense readily with aromatic aldehydes and ketones to form -y-di- substituted itaconic acids and 7-alkylen pyrotartaric acids (H. Stobbe, Ann., 1899, 308, p. 71). -y-Oxyacids are formed when aldehydes are heated with sodium succinate and sodium acetate. Numerous salts of the acid are known, the basic ferric salt being occasionally used in quantitative analysis for the separation of iron from aluminium. Succinyl chloride, obtained by the action of phosphorus penta- chloride on succinic acid, is a colourless liquid which boils at 190° C. In many respects it behaves as though it were dichlorbutyro-lactone, jH^ ; e.g. on reduction it yields butyro-lactone, and when condensed with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride it yields chiefly -y-diphenylbutyro-lactone. Succinic anhydride, C2H4(CO)2O, is obtained by heating the acid or its sodium salt with acetic anhydride; by the action of acetyl chloride on the barium salt; by distilling a mixture of succinic acid and succinyl chloride, or by heating succinyl chloride with anhydrous oxalic acid. It crystallizes in plates which melt at 120° C., and distils without decomposition. It is slowly dissolved by water with the formation of the acid. It combines readily with the meta-aminophenols to form rhodamines, which are valuable dyestuffs. Heated in a current of ammonia ' it gives succinimide, which is also obtained on heating acid ammon- ium succinate. It crystallizes in colourless octahedra which melt at 125-126° C., and is easily soluble in water. When warmed with baryta water it yields succinamic acid, HOjC-CHj-CHj-CONHj; and with alcoholic ammonia at 100° C. it gives succinamide. The imino hydrogen atom is easily replaced by metals. Distillation with zinc dust gives pyrrol (g.t>.). By the action of bromine in alkaline solution it is converted into 0-aminopropionic acid. Succinamide, C2H4(CONH2)2, best obtained by the action of ammonia on diethyl succinate, crystallizes in needles which melt at 242- 243° C., and is soluble in hot water. Succinonitrile, CjH4(CN)i, is obtained by the action of potassium cyanide on ethylene dibromide or by the electrolysis of a solution of potassium cyan- acetate. It is an amorphous solid which melts at 54—55° C. On reduction with sodium in alcoholic solution it yields tetraethylene diamine (putrescein) and pyrollidine. Methyl succinic acid (pyrotartaricacid),HO2C-CHj-CH(CH>)-CO8H, is formed by the dry distillation of tartaric acid ; by heating pyruvic acid with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 180° C. ; by the reduction of citraconic and mesaconic acids with sodium amalgam; and by SUCHER— SUCKLING the hydrolysis of 0-cyanbutyric acid. It crystallizes in small prisms which melt at 112 C. and are soluble in water. It forms an anhydride when heated. The sodium salt on heating with phosphorus trisulphide yields methylthiophen. Ethylidene succinic acid or isosuccinic acid, CHj-CH(CO2H)j, is produced by the hydrolysis of o-cyaupropionic acid and by the action of methyl iodide on sodio-malonic ester. It crystallizes in prisms which melt at 120° C. (T. Salzer, Journ. prak. Ghent., 1898 [2], 57, p. 497), and dissolve in water. It does not yield an anhydride, but when heated loses carbon dioxide and leaves a residue of propionic acid. It may be distinguished from the isomeric ethylene succinic acid by the fact that its sodium salt does not give a precipitate with ferric chloride. SUCHER, ROSA (1849- ), German opera singer, nte Hasselbeck, was the wife of Josef Sucher (1844-1908), a well- known conductor and composer. They were married in 1876, when she had already had various engagements as a singer and he was conductor at the Leipzig city theatre. Frau Sucher soon became famous for her performances in Wagner's operas, her seasons in London in 1882 and 1892 proving her great capacity both as singer and actress; in 1886 and 1888 she sang at Bayreuth, and in later years she was principally associated with the opera stage in Berlin, retiring in 1903. Her magnificent rendering of the part of Isolde in Wagner's opera is especially remembered. SUCHET, LOUIS GABRIEL, Due D'ALBUFERA DA VALENCIA (1770-1826), marshal of France, one of the most brilliant of Napoleon's generals, was the son of a silk manufacturer at Lyons, where he was born on the 2nd of March 1770. He originally intended to follow his father's business; but having in 1792 served as volunteer in the cavalry of the national guard at Lyons, he manifested military abilities which secured his rapid promotion. As chef de balaillon he was present at the siege of Toulon in 1793, where he took General O'Hara prisoner. During the Italian campaign of 1796 he was severely wounded at Cerea on the nth of October. In October 1797 he was appointed to the command of a demi-brigade, and his services, under Joubert in the Tirol in that year, and in Switzerland under Brune in 1 797-98, were recognized by his promotion to the rank of general of brigade. He took no part in the Egyptian campaign, but in August was made chief of the staff to Brune, and restored the efficiency and discipline of the army in Italy. In July 1799 he was made general of division and chief of staff to Joubert in Italy, and was in 1800 named by Massena his second in command. His dexterous resistance to the superior forces of the Austrians with the left wing of Massena's army, when the right and centre were shut up in Genoa, not only prevented the invasion of France from this direction but contributed to the success of Napoleon's crossing the Alps, which culminated in the battle of Marengo on the i4th of June. He took a prominent part in the Italian campaign till the armistice of Treviso. In the campaigns of 1805 and 1806 he greatly increased his reputation at Austerlitz, Saalfeld, Jena, Pultusk and Ostrolenka. He obtained the title of count on the igth of March 1808, married Mile de Saint Joseph, a niece of Joseph Bonaparte's wife, and soon afterwards was ordered to Spain. Here, after taking part in the siege of Saragossa, he was named commander of the army of Aragon and governor of the province, which, by wise and (unlike that of most of the French generals) disinterested administration no less than by his brilliant valour, he in two years brought into com- plete submission. He annihilated the army of Blake at Maria on the i4th of June 1809, and on the 22nd of April 1810 defeated O'Donnell at Lerida. After being made marshal of France (July 8, 1811) he in 1812 achieved the conquest of Valencia, for which he was rewarded with the title of due d'Albufera da Valencia (1812). When the tide set against the French Suchet defended his conquests step by step till compelled to retire into France, after which he took part in Soult's defensive campaign. By Louis XVIII. he was on the 4th of June made a peer of France, but, having during the Hundred Days commanded one of Napoleon's armies on the Alpine frontier, he was deprived of his peerage on the 24th of July 1815. He died near Marseilles on the 3rd of January 1826. Suchet wrote Mtmoires dealing with the Peninsular War, which were left by the marshal in an unfinished condition, and the two volumes and atlas appeared in 1820-1834 under the editorship of his former chief staff officer, Baron St Cyr-Nogues. See C. H. Barault-Roullon, Le Marechal Suchet (Paris, 1854); Choumara, Considerations militaires sur les mbmoires du Marshal Suchet (Paris, 1840), a controversial work on the last events of the Peninsular War, inspired, it is supposed, by Soult; and Lieutenant - General Lamarque's obituary notice in the Spectateur militaire (1826). See also bibliography in article PENINSULAR WAR. SU-CHOW. There are in China three cities of this name which deserve mention. 1. Su-chow-Fu, in the province of Kiang-su, formerly one of the largest cities in the world, and in 1907 credited still with a population of 500,000, on the Grand Canal, 55 m. W.N.W. of Shanghai, with which it is connected by railway. The site is practically a cluster of islands to the east of Lake Tai-hu. The walls are about 10 m. in circumference and there are four large suburbs. Its silk manufactures are represented by a greater variety of goods than are produced anywhere else in the empire; and the publication of cheap editions of the Chinese classics is carried to great perfection. There is a Chinese proverb to the effect that to be perfectly happy a man ought to be born in Su-chow, live in Canton and die in Lien-chow. The nine- storeyed pagoda of the northern temple is one of the finest in the country. In 1860 Su-chow was captured by the T'aip'ings, and when in 1863 it was recovered by General Gordon the city was almost a heap of ruins. It has since largely recovered its prosperity, and besides 7000 silk looms has cotton mills and an important trade in rice. Of the original splendour of the place some idea may be gathered from the beautiful plan on a slab of marble preserved since 1247 in the temple of Confucius and reproduced in Yule's Marco Polo, vol. i. Su-chow was founded in 484 by Ho-lu-Wang, whose grave is covered by the artificial " Hill of the Tiger " in the vicinity of the town. The literary and poetic designation of Su-chow is Ku-su, from the great tower of Ku-su-tai, built by Ho-lu-Wang. Su-chow was opened to foreign trade by the Japanese treaty of 1895. A Chinese and European school was opened in 1900. 2. Su-chow, formerly Tsiu-tsuan-tsiun, a free city in the province of Kan-suh, in 39° 48' N., just within the extreme north-west angle of the Great Wall, near the gate of jade. It is the great centre of the rhubarb trade. Completely destroyed in the great Mahommedan or Dungan insurrection (1865-72), it was recovered by the Chinese in 1873 and has been rebuilt. 3. Su-chow, a commercial town situated in the province of Sze-ch'uen at the junction of the Min River with the Yang-tse- Kiang, in 28° 46' 50" N. Population (1007) about 50,000. SUCKLING, SIR JOHN (1600-1642), English poet, was born at Whitton, in the parish of Twickenham, Middlesex, and bap- tized there on the icth of February 1609. His father, Sir John Suckling (1560-1627), had been knighted by James I. and was successively master of requests, comptroller of the household and secretary of state. He sat in the first and second parlia- ments of Charles I.'s reign, and was made a privy councillor. During his career he amassed a considerable fortune, of which the poet became master at the age of eighteen. He was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1623, and was entered at Gray's Inn in 1627. He was intimate with Thomas Carew, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Nabbes and especially with John Hales and Sir William Davenant, who furnished John Aubrey with information about his friend. In 1628 he left London to travel in France and Italy, returning, however, before the autumn of 1630, when he was knighted. In 1631 he volunteered for the force raised by the marquess of Hamilton to serve under Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. He was back at Whitehall in May 1632; but during his short service he had been present at the battle of Breitenfeld and in many sieges. He was hand- some, rich and generous; his happy gift in verse was only one of many accomplishments, but it commended him especially to Charles I. and his queen. He says of himself (" A Sessions of the Poets ") that he " prized black eyes or a lucky hit at bowls above all the trophies of wit." He was the best card- player and the best bowler at court. Aubrey says that he 8 SUCRE— SUCZAWA invented the game of cribbage, and relates that his sisters came weeping to the bowling green at Piccadilly to dissuade him from play, fearing that he would lose their portions. In 1634 great scandal was caused in his old circle by a beating which he received at the hands of Sir John Digby, a rival suitor for the hand of the daughter of Sir John Willoughby; and it has been suggested that this incident, which is narrated at length in a letter (Nov. 10, 1634) from George Garrard l to Strafford, had something to do with his beginning to seek more serious society. In 1635 ne retired to his country estates in obedience to the proclamation of the aoth of June 1632 enforced by the Star Chamber * against absentee landlordism, and employed his leisure in literary pursuits. In 1637 " A Sessions of the Poets " was circulated in MS., and about the same time he wrote a tract on Socinianism entitled An Account of Religion by Reason (pr. 1646). As a dramatist Suckling is noteworthy as having applied to regular drama the accessories already used in the production of masques. His Aglaura (pr. 1638) was produced at his own expense with elaborate scenery. Even the lace on the actors' coats was of real gold and silver. The play, in spite of its felicity of diction, lacks dramatic interest, and the criticism of Richard Flecknoe (Short Discourse of the English Stage),3 that it seemed " full of flowers, but rather stuck in than growing there," is not altogether unjustified. The Goblins (1638, pr. 1646) has some reminiscences of The Tempest; Brennoralt, or the Discontented Colonel (1639, pr. 1646) is a satire on the Scots, who are the Lithuanian rebels of the play; a fourth play, The Sad One, was left unfinished owing to the outbreak of the Civil War. Suckling raised a troop of a hundred horse, at a cost of £12,000, and accompanied Charles on the Scottish expedi- tion of 1639. He shared in the earl of Holland's retreat before Duns, and was ridiculed in an amusing ballad (pr. 1656), in Musarum deliciae, " on Sir John Suckling's most war- like preparations for the Scottish war."4 He was elected as member for Bramber for the opening session (1640) of the Long Parliament; and in that winter he drew up a letter addressed to Henry Jermyn, afterwards earl of St Albans, advising the king to disconcert the opposition leaders by making more con- cessions than they asked for. In May of the following year he was implicated in an attempt to rescue Strafford from the Tower and to bring in French troops to the king's aid. The plot was exposed by the evidence of Colonel George Goring, and Suckling fled beyond the seas. The circumstances of his short exile are obscure. He was certainly in Paris in the summer of 1641. One pamphlet related a story of his elopement with a lady to Spain, where he fell into the hands of the Inquisition. The manner of his death is uncertain, but Aubrey's statement that he put an end to his life by poison in May or June 1642 in fear of poverty is generally accepted. Suckling's reputation as a poet depends on his minor pieces. They have wit and fancy, and at times exquisite felicity of expression. " Easy, natural Suckling," Millamant's comment in Congreve's Way of the World (Act iv., sc. i.) is a just tribute to their spontaneous quality. Among the best known of them are the " Ballade upon a Wedding," on the occasion of the marriage of Roger Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, and Lady Margaret Howard, "I prithee, send me back my heart," "Out upon it, I have loved three whole days together," and " Why so pale and wan, fond lover?" from Aglaura. " A Sessions of the Poets," describing a meeting of the con- temporary versifiers under the presidency of Apollo to decide who should wear the laurel wreath, is the prototype of many later satires. A collection of Suckling's poems was first published in 1646 as Fragmenta aurea, the so-called Selections (1836) published by the 1 Strafford's Letters and Despatches (1739), i. 336. 1 For an account of the proceedings see Historical Collections, ed. by Rushworth (1680), 2nd pt., pp. 288-293. * Reprinted in Eng. Drama and Stage, ed. W. C. Hazlitt, Rox- burghe Library (1869), p. 277. 4 Attributed by Aubrey to Sir John Mennis (1599-1671). See also a song printed in the tract, Fox borealis (Harl. Misc. iii. 235). Rev. Alfred Inigo Suckling, author of the History and Antiquities of Suffolk (1846-1848) with Memoirs based on original authorities and a portrait after Van Dyck, is really a complete edition of his works, of which W. C. Hazlitt's edition (1874; revised ed., 1892) is little more than a reprint with some additions. The Poems and Songs of Sir John Suckling, edited by John Gray and decorated with woodcut border and initials by Charles Ricketts, was artistically printed at the Ballantyne Press in 1896. In 1910 Suckling's works in prose and verse were edited by A. Hamilton Thompson. For anecdotes of Suckling's life see John Aubrey's Brief Lives (Clarendon Press ed., ii. 242). SUCRE, or CHUQUISACA, a city of Bolivia, capital of the department of Chuquisaca and nominal capital of the republic, 46 m. N.E. of Potosi in 19° 2' 45* S., 65° 17' W. Pop. (1900), 20,967; (1906, estimate), 23,416, of whom many are Indians and cholos. The city is in an elevated valley opening southward on the narrow ravine through which flows the Cachimayo, the principal northern tributary of the Pilcomayo. Its elevation, 8839 ft., gives it an exceptionally agreeable climate. There are fertile valleys in the vicinity which provide the city's markets with fruit and vegetables, while the vineyards of Camargo (formerly known as Cinti), in the southern part of the depart- ment, supply wine and spirits of excellent quality. The city is laid out regularly, with broad streets, a large central plaza and a public garden, or promenade, called the prado. Among its buildings are the cathedral, dating from 1553 and once noted for its wealth; the president's palace and halls of congress, which are no longer occupied as such by the national govern- ment; the cabildo, or town-hall; a mint dating from 1572; the courts of justice, and the university of San Xavier, founded in 1624, with faculties of law, medicine and theology. There is a pretty chapel called the " Rotunda," erected in 1852 at the lower end of the prado by President Belzu, on the spot where an attempt had been made to assassinate him. Sucre is the seat of the archbishop of La Plata and Charcas, the primate of Bolivia. It is not a commercial town, .and its only note- worthy manufacture is the " clay dumplings " which are eaten with potatoes by the inhabitants of the Bolivian uplands. Although the capital of Bolivia, Sucre is one of its most isolated towns because of the difficult character of the roads leading to it. It is reached from the Pacific by way of Challapata, a station on the Antofagasta & Oruro railway. The Spanish town, according to Velasco, was founded in 1538 by Captain Pedro Angules on the site of an Indian village called Chuquisaca, or Chuquichaca (golden bridge), and was called Charcas and Ciudad de la Plata by the Spaniards, though the natives clung to the original Indian name. It became the capital of the province of Charcas, of the comarca of Chuquisaca, and of the bishopric of La Plata and Charcas, and in time it became the favourite residence and health resort of the rich mine-owners of Potosi. The bishopric dates from 1552 and the archbishopric from 1609. In the latter year was created the Real Audiencia de la Plata y Charcas, a royal court of justice having jurisdiction over Upper Peru and the La Plata provinces of that time. Sucre was the first city of Spanish South America to revolt against Spanish rule — on the 2Sth of May 1809. In 1840 the name Sucre was adopted in honour of the patriot commander who won the last decisive "battle of the war, and then became the first president of Bolivia. The city has suffered much from partisan strife, and the removal of the government to La Paz greatly diminished its importance. SUCZAWA (Rumanian, Suceava), a town in Bukovina, Austria, 50 m. S. of Czernowitz by rail. Pop. (1900), 10,955. It is situated on the river Suczawa, which forms there the boundary between Bukovina and Rumania. One of its two churches, dating from the I4th century, contains the grave of the patron saint of Bukovina. The principal industry is the tanning and leather trade. Not far from Suczawa lies the monastery of Dragomirna, in Byzantine style, built at the beginning of the i/th century. Suczawa is a very old town and was until 1565 the capital of the principality of Moldavia. It was many times besieged by Poles, Hungarians, Tatars and Turks. In 1675 it was besieged by Sobiaski, and in 1679 it was plundered by the Turks. SUDAN SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks), that region of Africa which stretches, south of the Sahara and Egypt, from Cape Verde on the Atlantic to Massawa on the Red Sea. It is bounded S. (i) by the maritime countries of the west coast of Africa, (2) by the basin of the Congo, and (3) by the equatorial lakes, and E. by the Abyssinian and Galla high- lands. The name is often used in Great Britain in a restricted sense to designate only the eastern part of this vast territory, but it is properly applied to the whole area indicated, which corresponds roughly to that portion of negro Africa north of the equator under Mahommedan influence. The terms Nigritia and Negroland, at one time current, referred to the same region. ^'M^^&j^WGL Anglo -Egyptian SUDAN Railmay *...***•**• Caravan routes Capitals of Provinces The Sudan has an ethnological rather than a physical unity, and politically it is divided into a large number of states, all now under the control of European powers. These countries being separately described, brief notice only is required of the Sudan as a whole. Within the limits assigned it has a length of about 4000 m., extending southwards at some points 1000 m., with a total area of over 2,000,000 sq. m., and a population, approximately, of 40,000,000. Between the arid and sandy northern wastes and the well-watered and arable Sudanese lands there is a transitional zone of level grassy steppes (partly covered with mimosas and acacias) with a mean breadth of about 60 m. The zone lies between 17° and 18° N., but towards the centre reaches as far south as 15° N. Excluding this transitional zone, the Sudan may be described as a moderately elevated region, with extensive open or rolling plains, level plateaus, and abutting at its eastern and western ends on mountainous country. Crystalline rocks, granites, gneisses and schists, of the Central African type, occupy the greater part of the country. Towards the south-east, slates, quartzites and iron-bearing schists ocCur, but their age is not known. The Congo sandstones do not appear to extend as far north. The Nubian sandstone borders the Libyan desert on the south and south-west, but it is doubtful if this sandstone is of Cretaceous or earlier date. The Sudan contains the basin of the Senegal and parts of three other hydrographic systems, namely: the Niger, draining southwards to the Atlantic; the central depression of Lake Chad; and the Nile, flowing northwards to the Mediterranean. Lying within the tropics and with an average elevation of not more than 1500 to 2000 ft. above the sea, the climate of the Sudan is hot and in the river valleys very un- healthy. Few parts are suitable for the residence of Europeans. Cut off from North Africa by the Saharan desert, the inhabitants, who belong in the main to the negro family proper, are thought to have received their earliest civilization from the East. Arab influence and the Moslem religion began to be felt in the western Sudan as early as the gth century and had taken deep root by the end of the nth. The existence of native Chris- tian states in Nubia hindered for some ' centuries the spread of Islam in the eastern Sudan, and throughout the country some tribes have remained pagan. It was not until the last quarter of the ipth century that the European nations became the ruling force. The terms western, central and eastern Sudan are indicative of geographical position merely. The various states are politically divisible into four groups: (i) those west of the Niger; (2) those between the Niger and Lake Chad; (3) those between Lake Chad and the basin of the Nile; (4) those in the upper Nile valley. The first group includes the native states of Bondu, Futa Jallon, Masina, Mossi and all the tribes within the great bend of the Niger. In the last quarter of the i Qth century they fell under the control of France, the region being styled officially the French Sudan. In 1900 this title was abandoned. The greater part of what was the French Sudan is now known as [the Upper Senegal and Niger Colony (see SENEGAL, FRENCH WEST AFRICA, &c.). The second group of Sudanese states EI""yW"*"Ki is almost entirely within the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It includes the sultanate of Sokoto and its dependent emirates of Kano, Bida, Zaria, &c., and the ancient sultanate of Bornu, which, with Adamawa, is partly within the German colony of Cameroon (see NIGERIA and CAMEROON). The third or central group of Sudanese states is formed of the sultanates of Bagirmi (.), and all the great tributaries of that river are either partly or entirely within its borders. The most elevated district is a range of mountains running parallel to the Red Sea. These mountains, which to the south join the Abyssinian highlands, present their steepest face eastward, attaining heights within the Sudan of 4000 to over 7000 ft. Jebel Erba, 7480 ft., and Jebel Soturba, 6889 ft. (both between 21° and 22° N.), the highest peaks, face the Red Sea about 20 m. inland. Westward the mountains 'slope gradually to the Nile valley, which occupies the greater part of the country and has a general level of from 600 to 1600 ft. In places, as between Suakin and Berber and above Roseires on the Blue Nile, the mountains approach close to the river. Beyond the Nile westward extend vast plains, which in Kordofan and Dar Nuba (between 10° and 15° N.) are broken by hills reaching 2000 ft. Farther west, in Darfur, the country is more elevated, the Jebel Marra range being from 5000 to 6000 ft. high. In the south-west, beyond the valley of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, the country gradually rises to a ridge of hills, perhaps 2000 ft. high, which running south-east and north-west form the water-parting between the Nile and the Congo. Apart from the Nile system, fully described elsewhere, the Sudan has two other rivers, the Gash and the Baraka. These are inter- mittent streams rising in the eastern chain of mountains in Eritrea and flowing in a general northerly direction. The Gash enters the Sudan near Kassala and north of that town turns west towards the Atbara, but its waters are dissipated before that river is reached. The Gash nevertheless fertilizes a considerable tract of country. The Khor Baraka lies east of the Gash. It flows towards the Red Sea in the neighbourhood of Trinkitat (some 50 m. south of Suakin), but about 30 m. from the coast forms an inland delta. Except in seasons of great rain its waters do not reach the sea. The Coast Region. — The coast extends along the Red Sea north to south from 22° N. to 18° N., a distance following the indentations of the shore of over 400 m. These indentations are numerous but not deep, the general trend of the coast being S.S.E. The most prominent headland is Ras Rawaya (21° N.) which forms the northern shore ot Dokhana Bay. There are few good harbours, Port 1 It was supposed to be indicated by the line which, according to the Turkish firman of 1841, describes a semicircle from the Siwa Oasis to Wadai, approaching the Nile between the Second and Third Cataracts. This line is disregarded by the Sudan government. Sudan and Suakin being the chief ports. South of Suakin is the shallow bay of Trinkitat. A large number of small islands lie off the coast. A belt of sandy land covered with low scrub stretches inland ten to twenty miles, and is traversed by khors (generally dry) with ill-defined shifting channels. Beyond this plain rise the mountain ranges already mentioned. Their seaward slopes often bear a considerable amount of vegetation. The Desert Zone. — The greater part of the region between the coast and the Nile is known as the Nubian Desert. It is a rugged, rocky, barren waste, scored with khors or wadis, along whose beds there is scanty vegetation. The desert character of the country increases as the river is neared, but along either bank of the Nile is a narrow strip of cultivable land. West of the Nile there are a few oases — those of Selima, Zaghawa and El Kab — but this district, part of the Libyan Desert, is even more desolate than the Nubian Desert. The Intermediate Zone and the Fertile Districts. — East of the Nile the region of absolute desert ceases about the point of the Atbara confluence. The country enclosed by the Nile, the Atbara and the Blue Nile, the so-called Island of Meroe, consists of very fertile soil, and along the eastern frontier, by the upper courses of the rivers named, is a district of rich land alternating with prairies and open forests. The fork between the White and Blue Niles, the Gezira, is also fertile land. South of the Gezira is Sennar, a well- watered country of arable and grazing land. West of the Nile the desert zone extends farther south than on the east, and Kordofan, which comes between the desert and the plains of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, is largely barren and steppe land. South of 10° N. there is everywhere abundance of water. Darfur is mainly open, steppe-like country with extensive tracts of cultiv- able land and a central mountain massif, the Jebel Marra (see SENNAR KORDOFAN, DARFUR). Climate. — The country lies wholly within the tropics, and as the greater part of it is far removed from the ocean and less than 1500 ft. above the sea it is extremely hot. The heat is greatest in the central regions, least in the desert zone, where the difference between summer and winter is marked. Even in winter, however, the day temperatures are high. Of this region the Arabs say " the soil is like fire and the wind like a flame." Nevertheless, the drynessof the air renders the climate healthy. The steppe countries, Kordofan and Darfur, are also healthy except after the autumn rains. At Khartum, centrally situated, the minimum temperature is about 40° F., the maximum 113°, the mean annual temperature being 80°. January is the coldest and June the hottest month. Violent sand- storms are frequent from June to August. Four rain zones may be distinguished. The northern (desert) region is one of little or no rain. There are perhaps a few rainy days in winter and an occasional storm in the summer. In the central belt, where " the rainy season " is from mid-June to September, there are some 10 in. of rain during the year. The number of days on which rain falls rarely exceeds, however, fifteen. The rainfall increases to about 20 m. per annum in the eastern and south-eastern regions. In the swamp district and throughout the Bahr-el-Ghazal heavy rains (40 in. or more a year) are experienced. The season of heaviest rain is from April to September. In the maritime district there are occasional heavy rains between August and January. In the sudd region thunderstorms are frequent. Here the temperature averages about 85° F., the air is always damp and fever is endemic. Flora. — In the deserts north of Khartum vegetation is almost confined to stunted mimosa and, in the less arid districts, scanty herbage. Between the desert and the cultivated Nile lands is an open growth of samr, hashab (Acacia verek) and other acacia trees. Between Khartum and 12° N. forest belts line the banks of the rivers and khors, in which the most noteworthy tree is the sant or sunt (Acacia arabica). Farther from the rivers are open woods of heglig (Balanites aegyptiaca), hashab, &c., and dense thickets of laot (Acacia nubica) and kittr (Acacia mellifera). These open woods coyer a considerable part of Kordofan, the hashab and talh trees being the chief producers of gum arabic. South of 12° N. the forest , lands of the White Nile as far south as the sudd region are of similar character to that described. On the Blue Nile the forest trees alter, the most abundant being the babanus (Sudan ebony) and the silag (Anogeissus leiocarpus), while gigantic baobabs, called tebeldi in the Sudan, and tarfa (Sterculia cinerea) are numerous. In southern Kordofan and in the higher parts of the Bahr-el-Ghazal the silag and ebony are also common, as well as African mahogany (homraya, Khaya senegalensis) and other timber trees. In the Ghazal province also are many rubber-producing lianas, among them the Landolphia owariensis. There are also forest regions in the Bahr-el-Jebel, in the Mongalla mudiria and along the Abyssinian- Eritrean frontier. East of the Bahr-el-Jebel and north of the Bahr-el-Ghazal are vast prairies covered with tall coarse grass. Cotton is indigenous in the valley of the Blue Nile, and in some districts bamboos are plentiful. The castor-oil plant grows in almost every province. (See also § Agriculture, and, for the vegetation of the swamp region, NILE.) Fauna. — Wild animals and birds are numerous. Elephants are abundant in the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Bahr-el-Jebel forests, and are found in fewer numbers in the upper valley of the Blue Nile. SUDAN ii The hippopotamus and crocodile abound in the swamp regions, which also shelter many kinds of water-fowl. The lion, leopard, giraffe and various kinds of antelope are found in the prairies and in the open woods. In the forests are numerous bright-plumaged birds and many species of monkeys, mostly ground monkeys — the trees being too prickly for climbing. Snakes are also plentiful, many poisonous kinds being found. In the steppe regions of Kordo- fan, Darfur, &c., and in the Nubian Desert ostriches are fairly plentiful. Insect life is very abundant, especially south of 12° N., the northern limit of the tsetse fly. The chief pests are mosqui- toes, termites and the serut, a brown fly about the size of a wasp, with a sharp stab, which chiefly attacks cattle. Locusts are less common, but, especially in the eastern districts, occasionally cause great destruction. For domestic animals see § Agriculture. Inhabitants. — The population, always sparse in the desert and steppe regions, was never dense even in the more fertile southern districts. During the Mahdia the country suffered severely from war and disease. Excluding Darfur the popula- tion before the Mahdist rule was estimated at 8,500,000. In 1905 an estimate made by the Sudan government put the population at 1,853,000 only, including 11,000 foreigners, of whom 2800 were Europeans. Since that year there has been a considerable natural increase and in 1910 the population was officially estimated at 2,400,000. There has also been a slight immigration of Abyssinians, Egyptians, Syrians and Europeans — the last named chiefly Greeks. The term " Bilad-es-Sudan " (" country of the blacks ") is not altogether applicable to the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, the northern portion being occupied by Hamitic and Semitic tribes, chiefly nomads, and classed as Arabs. In the Nile valley north of Khartum the inhabitants are of very mixed origin. This applies particularly to the so-called Nubians who inhabit the Dongola mudiria (see NUBIA). Elsewhere the inhabitants north of 12° N. are of mixed Arab descent. In the Nubian Desert the chief tribes are the Ababda and Bisharin, the last named grazing their camels in the mountainous districts towards the Red Sea. In the region south of Berber and Suakin are the Hadendoa. The Jaalin, Hassania and Shukria inhabit the country between the Atbara and Blue Nile; the Hassania and Hassanat are found chiefly in the Gezira. The Kabbabish occupy the desert country north of Kordofan, which is the home of the Baggara tribes. In Darfur the inhabitants are of mixed Arab and negro blood. Of negro Nilotic tribes there are three or four main divisions. The Shilluks occupy the country along the west side of the Nile northward from about Lake No. The country east of the Nile is divided between the Bari, Nuer and Dinka tribes. The Dinkas are also widely spread over the Bahr-el-Ghazal province. South of Kordofan and west of the Shilluk territory are the Nubas, apparently the original stock of the Nubians. In the south-west of the Bahr-el-Ghazal are the Bongos and other tribes, and along the Nile-Congo water-parting are the A-Zande or Niam-Niam, a comparatively light-coloured race. (All the tribes mentioned are separately noticed.) Social Conditions. — In contrast with the Egyptians, a most industrious race, the Sudanese tribes, both Arab and negro, are as a general rule indolent. Where wants are few and simple, where houses need not be built nor clothes worn to keep out the cold, there is little stimulus to exertion. Many Arabs " clothed in rags, with only a mat for a house, prefer to lead the life of the free-born sons of the desert, no matter how large their herds or how numerous their followings" (Egypt, No. i [1904], p. 147). Following the establishment of British control slave-raiding and the slave trade were stopped, but domestic slavery continues. A genuine desire for education is manifest among the Arabic- speaking peoples and slow but distinct moral improvement is visible among them. Among the riverain " Arabs " some were found to supply labour for public works, and with the money thus obtained cattle were bought and farms started. The Dongolese are the keenest traders in the country. The Arab tribes are all Mahommedans, credulous and singularly liable to fits of religious excitement. Most of the negro tribes are pagan, but some of them who live in the northern regions have embraced Islam. Divisions and Chief Towns. — Darfur is under native rule. The rest of the Sudan is divided into mudirias (provinces) and these are subdivided into mamuria. The mudirias are Haifa, Red Sea, Dongola and Berber in the north (these include practically all the region known as Nubia) ; Khartum, Blue Nile and White Nile in the centre; Kassala and Sennar in the east; Kordofan in the west; and Bahr- el-Ghazal, Upper Nile (formerly Fashoda) and Mongalla in the south. The mudirias vary considerably in size. The capital, Khartum ( (CH-OH)2 -»/ (CH-OH), -> (CH-OH)2 CHO CH-OH °\ CH-OH CH-OH CN \CO CHO Pentose — > Cyanhydrin — > Lactone — > Hexose. 2. Oximes. — The oximes permit the reverse change, i.e. the passage from a higher to a lower sugar. Wohl forms the oxime and converts it into an acetylated nitrile by means of acetic anhydride and sodium acetate; ammoniacal silver nitrate solution removes hydrocyanic acid and the resulting acetate is hydrolysed by acting with ammonia to form an amide, which is finally decomposed with sulphuric acid. CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH (CH-OH), -» (CH-OH), -» (CH-OH), -» (CH-OH), CH-OH CH-OH CH-OH CHO CHO CH:NOH CN Hexose — » Oxime — > Nitrile — » Pentose. Ruff effects the same change by oxidizing the sugar to the oxy-acid, 'See FERMENTATION; and for the relation of this property to structure see STEREOISOMERISM. 2 These formulae, however, require modification in accordance with the views of Lowry and E. F. Armstrong, which postulate a y oxidic structure (see GLUCOSE). This, however, does not disturb the tenor of the following arguments. XXVI. 2 and then further oxidizing this with Fenton's reagent, i.e. hydrogen peroxide and a trace of a ferrous salt : C4H,04(CH-OH)-CHO->CC,H,04-CHO Hexose -» Acid -» Pentose. 3. Phenylhydrazine Derivatives. — Fischer found that if one mole- cule of phenylhydrazine acted upon one molecule of an aldose or ketose a hydrazone resulted which in most cases was very soluble in water, but if three molecules of the hydrazine reacted (one of which is reduced to ammonia and aniline) insoluble crystalline substances resulted, termed osazones, which readily characterized the sugar from which it was obtained. R R R CH-OH -» CH-OH -+ C-.N-NHPh CHO CH:N-NHPh. CH:N-NHPh. Aldose — > Hydrazone — » Osazone; R R R CO -» C:N-NHPh. -> C:N-NHPh CH2OH CH2OH CH:N-NHPh. Ketose — » Hydrazone — » Osazone. On warming the osazone with hydrochloric acid the phenylhydra- zine residues are removed and an osone results, which on reduction with zinc and acetic acid gives a ketose. R R R C:N-NHPh. -> CO -» CO CH:N-NHPh. CHO CH2OH Osazone — > Osone — » Ketose. A ketose may also be obtained by reducing the osazone with zinc and acetic to an osamine, which with nitrous acid gives the ketose: R R R C:N-NHPh. -* CO -> CO CH:N-NHPh. CH2NH2 CH,OH. Osazone — » Osamine — » Ketose. These reactions permit the transformation of an aldose into a ketose; the reverse change can only be brought about by reducing the ketose to an alcohol, and oxidizing this compound to an aldehyde. It is seen that aldoses and ketoses which differ stereochemically in only the two final carbon atoms must yield the same osazone; and since d-mannose, d-glucose, and d-fructose do form the same osazone (d-glucosazone) differences either structural or stereochemical must be placed in the two final carbon atoms.3 It may here be noticed that in the sugars there are asymmetric carbon atoms, and consequently optical isomers are to be expected. Thus glucose, containing four such atoms, can exist in 16 forms; and the realization of many of these isomers by E. Fischer may be regarded as one of the most brilliant achievements in modern chem- istry. The general principles of stereochemistry being discussed in Stereoisomerism (?.».), we proceed to the synthesis of glucose and fructose and then to the derivation of their configurations. In 1861 Butlerow obtained a sugar-like substance, methylenitan, by digesting trioxymethylene, the solid polymer of formaldehyde, with lime. The work was repeated by O. Loew, who prepared in 1885 a sweet, unfermentable syrup, which he named formose, CeHiiOt and, later, by using magnesia instead of lime, he obtained the fermentable methose. Fischer showed that methose was identical with the a-acrose obtained by himself and Tafel in 1887 by decomposing acrolein dibromide with baryta, and subsequently prepared by oxidizing glycerin with bromine in alkaline solution, and treating the product with dilute alkali at o°. Glycerin appears to yield, on mild oxidation, an aldehyde, CH2OH-CH(OH)-CHO, and a ketone, CH2OH-CO-CH2OH, and these condense as shown in the equation : CH2OH-CH(OH)-CHO+CH2OH-CO-CH!OH = CH2OH-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CO.CH,OH+H2O. The osazone prepared from a-acrose resembled most closely the glucosazone yielded by glucose, mannose, and fructose, but it was optically inactive; also the ketose which it gave after treatment with hydrochloric acid and reduction of the osone was like ordinary fructose except that it was inactive. It was surmised that o-acrpse was a mixture of dextro and laevo fructose, a supposition which was proved correct by an indirect method. The starting point was ordinary (_1 1 ; this acid readily yields a lactone. Also Kiliani found that the lactone derived from the cyanhydrin of natural arabinose (laevo) was identical with the previous lactone except that its rotation was equal and opposite. On mixing the eslactones and reducing (a +/)-mnanitol was obtained, identical with o-acritol. A separation of u-acrose was made by acting with beer yeast, which destroyed the ordinary fructose and left /-fructose which was isolated as its osazone. Also ( /-mannose — > /-mannoheptose; glucononose 4— o-gluco-octose 4— a-glucoheptose 4— d-glucose — > 0-glucoheptose — 7 /8-gluco-octose ; A-mannose—> (/-mannoheptose — ^manno-octose~>mannononose; d-glucose —$ (/-arabinose — > (/-erythrose. l-glucose— $ 6-arabinose — ^ /-erythrose. Their number is further increased by spatial inversion of the dicarb- oxylic acids formed on oxidation, followed by reduction; for example: d- and /-glucose yield (/-and /-gulose; and also by Lobry de Bruyn and Van Ekenstein's discovery that hexoses are transformed into mixtures of their isomers when treated with alkalis, alkaline earths, lead oxide, &c. Monosaccharoses. Biose. — The onl\ ily possible biose is glycollic aldehyde, CHO-CHjOH, obtained impure by Fischer from bromacetaldehyde and baryta water, and crystalline by Fenton by heating dihydroxymaleic acid with water to 60°. It polymerizes to a tetrose under the action of sodium hydroxide. Triases. — The trioses are the aldehyde and ketone mentioned above as oxidation products of glycerin. Glyceric aldehyde CH2OH-CH(OH)-CHO, was obtained pure by Wohlon oxidizing acrolein acetal, CH2-CH(OC2H6)2> and hydrolysing. Although containing an asymmetric carbon atom it has not been resolved The ketone, dihydroxyacetone, CH2OH-CO-CH2OH, was obtained by Piloty by condensing formaldehyde with nitromethane, reducing to a hydroxylamino compound, which is oxidized to the oxime of dihydroxyacetone ; the ketone is liberated by oxidation with bromine water: * (CH2OH)3C-NO2 -> (CH2OH)3C-NH OH -> (CH2OH)2C:NOH-»(CH2OH)2CO. The ketone is also obtained when Bertrand's sorbose bacterium acts on glycerol ; this medium also acts on other alcohols to yield ketoses ; for example: erythrite gives erythrulose, arabite arabinulose, mannitol fructose, &c. Tetroses. — Four active tetroses are possible, and three have been obtained by Ruff and Wohl from the pentoses. Thus Wohl pre- pared /-threose from /-xylose and /-erythrose from /-arabinose, and Ruff obtained d- and /-erythrose from d- and /-arabonic acids, the oxidation products of d- and /-arabinoses. Impure inactive forms result on the polymerization of glycollic aldehyde and also on the oxidation of erythrite, a tetrahydric alcohol found in some lichens. d-Erythrulose is a ketose of this series. Pentoses. — Eight stereoisomeric pentaldoses are possible, and six are known : d- and /-arabinose, d- and /-xylose, /-ribose, and o-lyxose. Scheibler discovered /-arabinose in 1869, and regarded it as a glucose; in 1887 Kiliani proved it to be a pentose. (/-Arabinose is obtained from (/-glucose by Wohl's method. /-Xylose was dis- covered by Koch in 1886; its enantiomorph is prepared from (/-gulose by Wohl's method. /-Ribose and (jflyxose are prepared by inversion from /-arabinose and /-xylose; the latter has also been obtained from (/-galactose. We may notice that the pentoses differ from other sugars by yielding furfurol when boiled with hydrochloric acid. Rhamnose or isodulcite, a component of certain glucosides, fucose, found combined in seaweeds and chinovose, present as its ethyl ester, chinovite, in varieties of quina-bark, are methyl pentoses. /-Arabinulose obtained from arabite and Bertrand's sorbium bacterium is a ketose. Hexoses.— The hexoses may be regarded as the most important sub-division of the monosaccharoses. The reader is referred to GLUCOSE and FRUCTOSE for an account of these substances. The next important aldose is mannose. (/-Mamiose, first prepared by oxidizing (/-mannite, found in plants and manna-ash (Fraxinus ornus), was obtained by Tollens and Gans on hydrolysing cellulose and by Reis from seminine (reserve cellulose), found in certain plant seeds, e.g. vegetable ivory. /-Mannose is obtained from /-mannonic acid. Other forms are: d- and /-gulose, prepared from the lactones of the corresponding gulonic acids, which are obtained from d- and /-glucose by oxidation and inversion; d- and /-idose, obtained by inverting with pyridine d- and /-gulonic acids, and reducing the resulting idionic acids; d- and /-galactose, the first being obtained by hydrolysing milk _sugar with dilute sulphuric acid, and the second by fermenting inactive galactose (from the reduction of the lactone of d, /-gaiactonic acid) with yeast; and (/- and /-talose obtained by inverting the gaiactonic acids by pyridine into d- and /-talonic acids and reduction. Of the ketoses, we notice (/-sorbose, found in the berries of mountain-ash, and (/-tagatose, obtained by Lobry de Bruyn and van Ekenstein on treating galactose with dilute alkalis, talose and /-sorbose being formed at the same time. The higher sugars call for no special notice. Configuration of the Hexaldoses.1 — The plane projection of molecular structures which differ stereochemically is discussed under STEREO- ISOMERISM; in this place it suffices to say that, since the terminal groups of the hexaldose molecule are different and four asymmetric carbon atoms are present, sixteen hexaldoses are possible; and for the hexahydric alcohols which they yield on reduction, and the tetrahydric dicarboxylic acids which they give on oxidation, only ten forms are possible. Employing the notation in which the molecule is represented vertically with the aldehyde group at the bottom, and calling a carbon atom+or — according as the hydrogen atom is to the left or right, the possible configurations are shown in the diagram. The grouping of the forms 5 to to with 1 1 to 16 is designed to show that the pairs 5, 1 1 for example become identical when the terminal groups are the same. II 13 14 15 16 8 IO We can now proceed to the derivation of the structure of glucose. Since both (/-glucose and (/-gulose yield the same active (d) saccharic acid on oxidation, the configuration of this and the corresponding /-acid must be sought from among those numbered 5-10 in the above table. Nos. 7 and 8 can be at once ruled out, however, as acids so constituted would be optically inactive and the saccharic acids are active. If the configuration of (/-saccharic acid were given by either 6 or 10, bearing in mind the relation of mannose to glucose, it would then be necessary to represent (/-mannosaccharic acid by either 7 or 8 — as the forms 6 and 10 pass into 7 and 8 on changing the sign of a terminal group; but this cannot be done as mannosac- charic acid is optically active. Nos. 6 and 10 must, in consequence, also be ruled out. No. 5, therefore, represents the configuration of one of the saccharic acids, and No. 9, that of the isomeride of ' equal opposite rotatory power. As there is no means of distinguish- ing between the configuration of a dextro- and laevo-modification, an arbitrary assumption must be made. No. 5 may therefore be assigned to the d- and No. 9 to the /-acid. It then follows that (/-mannose is represented by No. I, and /-mannose by No. 4, as man- nose is produced by reversing the sign of the asymmetric system adjoining the terminal COH group. It remains to distinguish between 5 and 11,9 and 1 5 as representing glucose and gulose. To settle this point it is necessary to consider the configuration of the isomeric pentoses — arabinose and xylose — from which they may be prepared. Arabinose being convertible into /-glucose and xylose into /-gulose, the alternative formulae to be considered are — CH2(OH) +COH CH2(OH)+-M — COH. 1 The following account is mainly from H. E. Armstrong's article CHEMISTRY in the loth edition of this Encyclopaedia ; the representa- tion differs from the projection of Meyer and Jacobsen. SUGAR 35 If the asymmetric system adjoining the COH group, which is that introduced in synthesizing the hexose from the pentose, be eliminated the formulae at disposal for the two pentoses are CH,(OH) --- COH CH,(OH)H --- COH. When such compounds are converted into corresponding dibasic acids, CO2H.[CH(OH)]«.CO2H, the number of asymmetric carbon atoms becomes reduced from three to two, as the central carbon atom is then no longer associated with four, but with only three different radicles. Hence it follows that the " optical " formulae of the acids derived from two pentoses having the configuration given above will be CO2H-0-COaH COjH+O-COaH, and that consequently only one of the acids will be optically active. As a matter of fact, only arabinose gives an active product on oxida- tion; it is therefore to be supposed that arabinose is the --- compound, and consequently CH,(OH) --- + COH = /-glucose CH2(OH) H ---- COH = /-gulose. When xylose is combined with hydrocyanic acid and the cyanide is hydrolysed, together with /-gulonic acid, a second isomeric acid, /-idonic acid, is produced, which on reduction yields the hexaldose /-idose. When /-gulonic acid is heated with pyridine, it is converted into /-idonic acid, and vice versa; and d-gulonic acid may in a similar manner be converted into d-idonic acid, from which it is possible to prepare d-idpse. It follows from the manner in which /-idose is produced that its configuration is CH2(OH) -\ ---- j-COH. The remaining aldohexoses discovered by Fischer are derived from d-galactose from milk-sugar. When oxidized this aldohexose is first converted into the monobasic galactonic acid, and then into dibasic mucic acid; the latter is optically inactive, so that its configuration must be one of those given in the sixth and seventh columns of the table. On reduction it yields an inactive mixture of galactonic acids, some molecules being attacked at one end, as it were, and an equal number of others at the other. On reducing the lactone prepared from the inactive acid an inactive galactose is obtained from which /-galactose may be separated by fermentation. Lastly, when for a triple effect, 250 for a quadruple effect, and 200 Ib for a quintuple effect. In some places where coal costs 6os. a ton, and where steam is raised by coal, as in a beetroot factory, it might pay to adopt a quintuple-effect apparatus, but on a cane-sugar estate, where the steam necessary for the evaporator is raised by burning the megass as fuel, and is first used in the engines working the mills, the exhaust alone passing to the evaporator, there would be very little, if any, advantage in employing a quadruple effect instead of a triple effect, and practically none at all in having a quintuple-effect apparatus, for the interest and sinking fund on the extra cost would more than counterbalance the saving in fuel. With the juice of some canes considerable difficulty is encountered in keeping the heating surfaces of the evaporators clean and free from incrustations, and cleaning by the use of acid has to be resorted to. In places where work is carried on day and night throughout the week, the standard type of evaporator lends itself more readily to cleaning operations than any other. It is obviously easier to brush out and clean vertical tubes open at both ends, and about 6 ft. long, on which the scale has already been loosened by the aid of boiling with dilute muriatic acid or a weak solution of caustic soda in water, than it is to clean either the inside or the outside of horizontal tuoes more than double the length. This consideration should be carefully remembered in the future by the planter who may require an evaporator and by the engineer who may be called upon to design or Construct it, and more especially by a constructor without practical experience of the working of his constructions. Concentration and Crystallization. — The defecated cane juice, having lost about 70% of its bulk by evaporation in the multiple- effect evaporator, is now syrup, and ready to enter the vacuum pan for further concentration and crystalliza- Howard'* tion. In a patent (No. 3607, 1812) granted to E. C. Howard it is stated, among other things, that " water dissolves the most uncrystallizable in preference to that which is most crystallizable sugar," and the patentee speaks of " a discovery I have made that no solution, unless highly concentrated, of sugar in water can without material injury to its colouring and crystalliz- ing power, or to both, be exposed to its boiling temperature during the period required to evaporate such solution to the crystallizing point." He stated that " he had made a magma of sugar and water at atmospheric temperature, and heated the same to 190° or 200° F. in a water or steam bath, and then added more sugar or a thinner magma, and the whole being then in a state of imperfect fluidity, but so as to close readily behind the stirrer, was filled into moulds and purged " (drained). " I do further declare," he added, " that although in the application of heat to the refining of sugar in my said invention or process I have stated and mentioned the tempera- ture of about 200 F. scale as the heat most proper to be used and app|ied in order to secure and preserve the colour and crystalliz- ability of the sugars, and most easily to be obtained with precision and uniformity by means of the water bath and steam bath, yet when circumstances or choice may render the same desirable I do make use of higher temperatures, although less beneficial." Howard at any rate saw clearly what was one of the indispensable requisites for the economical manufacture of fine crystal sugar of good colour — the treatment of saccharine solutions at temperatures very con- siderably lower than 212° F., which is the temperature of water boil- ing at normal atmospheric pressure. Nor was he long in providing means for securing these lower temperatures. His patent (No. 3754 of 1813) describes the closed vacuum pan and the air pump with condenser for steam by injection, the use of a thermometer immersed in the solution in the pan, and a method of ascertaining the density of the solution with a proof stick, and by observations of the temperature at which, while fluid and not containing grain, it could be kept boiling under different pressures shown by a vacuum gauge. A table is also given of boiling points from 115° F. to 175 F., corresponding to decimal parts of an inch of mercury of the vacuum gauge. Since Howard published his invention the vacuum pan has been greartly improved and altered in shape and power, and especially of recent years, and the advantages of concen- trating in vocuo having been acknowledged, the system has been adopted in many other industries, and crowds of inventors have turned their attention to the principle. In endeavouring to make a pan of less power do as much and as good work as one of greater power, they have imagined many ingenious mechanical contrivances, such as currents produced mechanically to promote evaporation and crystallization, feeding the pan from many points in order to spread the feed equally throughout the mass of sugar being cooked, and so on. All their endeavours have obtained at best but a doubtful success, for they have overlooked the fact that to evaporate a given weight of water from the syrup in a vacuum pan at least an equal weight (or in practice about 15% more) of steam must be condensed, and the first cost of mechanical agitators, together with the expenditure they involve for motive power and SUGAR maintenance, must be put against the slight saving in the heating surface effected by their employment. On the other hand, the advocates of admitting the feed into a vacuum pah in many minute streams appeal rather to the ignorant and incompetent sugar- boiler than to a man who, knowing his business thoroughly, wil boil 150 tons of hot raw sugar in a pan in a few hours, feeding it through a single pipe and valve 10 in. in diameter. Nevertheless it has been found in practice, when syrups with low quotient ol purity and high quotient of impurity are being treated, injecting the feed at a number of different points in the pan does reduce the time required to boil the pan, though of no practical advantage with syrups of high quotient of purity and free from the viscosity which impedes circulation and therefore quick boiling. Watt, when he invented the steam engine, laid down the principles on which it is based, and they hold good to the present day. So also the prin- ciples laid down by Howard with respect to the vacuum pan hold good to-day : larger pans have been made and their heating surface has been increased, but it has been found by practice now, as it was found then, that an ordinary worm or coil 4 in. in diameter and 50 ft. long will be far more efficient per square foot of surface than a similar coil 100 ft. long. Thus the most efficient vacuum pans of the present day are those which have their coils so arranged that no portion of them exceeds 50 or 60 ft. in length; with such coils, and a sufficient annular space in the pan free from obstruction, in order to allow a natural down-current of the cooking mass, while an up-current all round is also naturally produced by the action of the heated worms or coils, rapid evaporation and crystallization can be obtained, without any mechanical adjuncts to require attention or afford excuse for negligence. The choice of the size of the crystals to be produced in a given pan depends upon the market for which they are intended. It is of course presupposed that the juice has been properly defecated, because without this no amount of skill and knowledge in cooking in the pan will avail; the sugar resulting must be bad, either in colour or grain, or both, and certainly in polarizing; power. If a very large firm grain like sugar-candy is required the syrup when first brought into the pan must be of low density, say 20° to 21° Beaum£, but if a smaller grain be wanted it can easily be obtained from syrup of 27° to 28° Beaum^. On some plantations making sugar for particular markets and use in refineries it is the custom to make only one class of sugar, by boiling the molasses produced by the purging of one strike with the sugar in the next strike. On other estates the second sugars, or sugars produced from boil- ing molasses alone, are not purged to dryness, but when sufficiently separated from their mother-liquor are mixed with the defecated juice, thereby increasing its saccharine richness, and after being converted into syrup in the usual manner are treated in the vacuum pan as first sugars, which in fact they really are. In certain districts, notably in the Straits Settlements, syrup is prepared as described above for crystallization in a vacuum pan, but instead of being cooked in vacua it is slowly boiled up in open double-bottom pans. These pans are sometimes heated by boiling oil, with the idea that under such conditions the sugar which is kept stirred all the time as it thickens cannot be burnt or caramel- ized; but the same object can be attained more economically with steam of a given pressure by utilizing its latent heat. The sugar thus produced, by constant stirring and evaporation almost to dryness, forms a species of small-grained concrete. It is called " basket sugar," and meets with a brisk sale, at remunerative prices, among the Chinese coolies; and as the sugar as soon as cooled is packed ready for market, without losing any weight by draining, this branch of sugar-making is a most lucrative one where- ever there is sufficient local demand. Very similar kinds of sugar are also produced for local consumption in Central America and in Mexico, under the names of ," Panela " and " Chancaca," but in those countries the sugar is generally boiled in pans placed over special fire-places, and the factories making it are on a comparatively small scale, whereas in the Straits Settlements the " basket sugar factories are of considerable importance, and are fitted with the most approved machinery. Curing or Preparation of Crystals for the Market. — The crystal- lized sugar from the vacuum pan has now to be separated from the molasses or mother-liquor surrounding; the crystals. In some parts of Mexico and Central America this separation is still effected by running the sugar into conical moulds, and placiag on the top a layer of moist clay or earth which has been kneaded in a mill into a stiff paste. The moisture from the clay, percolating through the mass of sugar, washes away the adhering molasses and leaves the crystals comparatively free and clear. It may be noted that sugar that will not purge easily and freely with clay will not purge easily and freely in centrifugals. But for all practical purposes the system of claying sugar is a thing of the past, and the bulk of the sugar of commerce is now purged in centrifugals, as indeed it has been for many years. The reason is obvious. The claying system involved the expense of large curing houses and the em- ployment of many hands, and forty days at least were required for completing the operation and making the sugar fit for the market, whereas with centrifugals sugar cooked to-day can go to market to-morrow, and the labour employed is reduced to a minimum. When Cuba was the chief sugar-producing country making clayed sugars it was the custom (followed in refineries and found advan- tageous in general practice) to discharge the strike of crystallized sugar from the vacuum pan into a receiver heated below by steam, and to stir the mass for a certain time, and then distribute it into the moulds in which it was afterwards clayed. When centrifugals were adopted for purging the whole crop (they had long been used for curing the seconder third sugars), the system then obtaining of running the sugar into wagons or coolers, which was necessary for the second and third sugars cooked only to string point, was continued, but latterly " crystallization in movement, a develop- ment of the system which forty years ago or more existed in refineries and in Cuba, has come into general use, and with great advantage, especially where proprietors have been able to erect appropriate buildings and machinery for carrying out the system efficiently. The vacuum pan is erected at a height which commands the crystal- lizers, each of which will, as in days gone by in Cuba, hold the con- tents of the pan, and these in their turn are set high enough to allow the charge to fall into the feeding-trough of the centrifugals, thus obviating the necessity of any labour to remove the raw sugar from the time it leaves the vacuum pan to the time it falls into the centrifugals. For this reason alone, and without taking into consideration any increase in the yield of sugar brought about by " crystallization in movement," the system is worthy of adoption in all sugar factories making crystal sugar. The crystallizers are long, horizontal, cylindrical or semi-cylin- drical vessels, fitted with a strong horizontal shaft running from end to end, which is kept slowly revolving. The shaft c , carries arms and blades fixed in such a manner that the mass of sugar is quietly but thoroughly moved, Uxen, while at the same time a gentle but sustained evaporation is pro- duced by the continuous exposure of successive portions of the mass to the action of the atmosphere. Thus also the crystals already formed come in contact with fresh mother-liquor, and so go on adding to their size. Some crystallizers are made entirely cylin- drical, and are connected to the condenser of the vacuum pan; in order to maintain a partial vacuum in them, some are fitted with cold-water pipes to cool them and with steam pipes to heat them, and some are left open to the atmosphere at the top. But the efficiency of all depends on the process of almost imperceptible yet continuous evaporation and the methodical addition of syrup, and not on the idiosyncrasies of the experts who manage them; and there is no doubt that in large commercial processes of manu- facture the simpler the apparatus used for obtaining a desired result, and the more easily it is understood, the better it will be for the manufacturer. The sugar made from the first syrups does not require a crystallizer in movement to prepare it for purging in the centrifugals, but it is convenient to run the strike into the crystallizer and so empty the pan at once and leave it ready to commence another strike, while the second sugars will be better for twenty-four hours' stirring and the third sugars for forty-eight hours' stirring before going to the centrifugals. To drive these machines electricity has been applied, with indifferent success, but they have been very efficiently driven, each independently of the others in the set, by means of a modification of a Pelton wheel, supplied with water under pressure from a pumping engine. A comparatively small stream strikes the wheel with a pressure equivalent to a great head, say 300 ft., and as the quantity of water and number of jets striking the wheel can be regulated with the greatest ease and nicety, each machine can without danger be quickly brought up< to its full speed when purging high-class sugars, Dr allowed to run "slowly when purging low-class sugars, until the heavy, gummy molasses have been expelled; and it can then be brought up to its full speed for finally drying the sugar in the basket, a boon which all practical sugar-makers will appreciate. The water forced by the force-pump against the Pelton wheels returns ay a waste-pipe to the tank, from which the force-pump takes t again. Recent Progress. — The manufacture of cane sugar has largely , ncreased in volume since the year 1901-1902. This, apart from :he effect of the abolition of the sugar bounties, has been mainly the result of the increased employment of improved processes, carried on in improved apparatus, under skilled supervision, and with due regard to the importance of the chemical aspects of the work. Numerous central factories have been erected in several countries with plant of large capacity, and many of them work day and night or six days in the week. There were 173 of these central factories working in Cuba in 1908-1909, among which Factorie* the "Chaparra," in the province of Oriente, turned out upwards of 69,000 tons of sugar in the crop of about 20 weeks, and the " Boston " had an output of about 61,000 tons n the same time. Of the 178 factories at work in Java in 1908- 1909, nearly all had most efficient plant for treating the excellent canes grown in that favoured island. (See Jaarboek voor suiker- fabrikanten op Java, 13' J oar gang 1908-1909, pp. 22-61, Amster- dam, J. H. de Bussy.) The severance of the agricultural work, .e. cane-growing, from the manufacturing work, sugar-making, nust obviously conduce to better and more profitable work of }oth kinds. SUGAR The use of multiple-effect evaporation made it possible to raise the steam for all the work required to be done in a well-equipped _^ factory, making crystals, under skilful management, by means of the bagasse alone proceeding from the canes ground, without the aid of other fuel. The bagasse so used is now commonly taken straight from the cane mill to furnaces specially designed for burning it, in its moist state and without previous drying, and delivering the hot gases from it to suitable boilers, such as those of the multitubular type or of the water-tube type. The value of fresh bagasse, or as it is often called '" green ' bagasse, as fuel varies with the kind of canes from which it comes, with their treatment in the mill, and with the skill used in firing; but it may be stated broadly that i ft of fresh bagasse will produce from ij lb to 2\ Ib of steam, according to the conditions. The use of preparing rolls with corrugations, to crush and equalize the feed of canes to the mill, or to the first of a series of mills, has B tractl become general. The Krajewski crusher has two such 'T. . °° steel rolls, with V-shaped corrugations extending longi- tudinally across them. These rolls run at a speed about 30% greater than the speed of the first mill, to which they deliver the canes well crushed and flattened, forming a close mat of pieces of cane 5 to 6 in. long, so that the subsequent grindrng can be carried on without the stoppages occasioned by the mill choking with a heavy and irregular feed. The crusher is preferably driven by an independent engine, but with suitable gearing it can be driven by the mill engine. The Krajewski crusher was invented some years ago by a Polish engineer resident in Cuba, who took out a patent for it and gave it his name. The patent has expired. The increase in the output for a given time obtained by the use of the Krajewski crusher has been estimated at 20 to 25 % and varies with the quality of the canes; while the yield of juice or extraction is increased by i or 2%. The process of continuous defecation which was introduced into Cuba from Santo Domingo about 1900 had by 1910 borne the Purlfi a test °^ some ten years' use with notable success. The Hatton defecator, which is employed for working it, has been already described, but it may be mentioned that the regulation of the admission of steam is now simplified and secured by a patent thermostat — a selt-acting apparatus in which the unequal expansion of different metals by heat actuates, through compressed air, a diaphragm which controls the steam stop-valve-^-and by this means a constant temperature of 210° F. (98-8° C.) is maintained in the juice within the defecator during the whole time it is at work. Earthy matter and other matter precipitated and fallen on the copper double bottom may be dislodged by a slowly revolving scraper — say every twelve hours — and ejected through the bottom discharge cock; and thus the heating surface of the copper bottom will be kept in full efficiency. With ordinary care on the part of the men in charge Hatton defecators will work continuously for several days and nights, and the number required to deal with a given volume of juice is half the number of ordinary defecators of equal capacity which would do the same work; for it must be borne in mind that an ordinary double-bottomed defecator takes two hours to deliver^ its charge and be in readiness to receive a fresh charge, i.e. 20 minutes for filling and washing out after empty- ing; 60 minutes for heating up and subsiding; and 40 minutes for drawing off the defecated juice, without agitating it. Apart from increased yield in sugar of good quality, we may sum up the advantages procurable from the use of Hatton defecators as follows: cold liming; heating gently to the temperature required to coagulate the albumen and not beyond it, whereby disturbance would ensue ; the continuous separation of the scums; the gradual drying of the scums _so as to make them ready for the fields, without carrying away juice or requiring treatment in filter presses; and the con- tinuous supply of hot defecated juice to the evaporators, without the use of subsiding tanks or eliminators; and, finally, the saving in expenditure on plant, such as filter presses, &c., and wages. Beetroot Sugar Manufacture. — The sugar beet is a cultivated variety of Beta maritima (nat. ord. Chenopodiaceae), other varieties of which, under the name of mangold or mangel-wurzel, are grown as feeding roots for cattle. About 1760 the Berlin apothecary Marggraff obtained in his laboratory, by means of alcohol, 6-2% of sugar from a white variety of beet and 4-5% from a red variety. At the present day, thanks to the careful study of many years, the improve- ments of cultivation, the careful selection of seed and suitable manuring, especially with nitrate of soda, the average beet worked up contains 7% of fibre and 93% of juice, and yields in Germany 12-79% and in France n-6% of its weight in sugar. In Great Britain in 1910 the cultivation of beet for sugar was being seriously undertaken in Essex, as the result of careful consideration 'during several years. The pioneer experi- ments on Lord Denbigh's estates at Newnham Paddox, in Warwickshire, in 1900, had produced excellent results, both in respect of the weight of the beets per acre and of the saccharine value and purity of the juice. The average weight per acre was over 25! tons, and the mean percentage of pure sugar in the juice exceeded 15^. The roots were grown under exactly the same cultivation and conditions as a crop of mangel-wurzel — that is to say, they had the ordinary cultivation and manuring of the usual root crops. The weight per acre, the saccharine contents of the juice, and the quotient of purity compared favourably with the best results obtained in Germany or France, and with those achieved by the Suffolk farmers, who between 1868 and 1872 supplied Mr Duncan's beetroot sugar factory at Lavenham; for the weight of their roots rarely reached 15 tons per acre, and the percentage of sugar in the juice appears to have varied between 10 and 12. On the best-equipped and most skilfully managed cane sugar estates, where the climate is favourable for maturing the cane, a similar return is obtained. Therefore, roughly speaking, one ton of beetroot may be con- sidered to-day as of the same value as one ton of canes; the value of the refuse chips in one case, as food for cattle, being put against the value of the refuse bagasse, as fuel, in the other. Before beetroot had been brought to its present state of per- fection, and while the factories for its manipulation were worked with hydraulic presses for squeezing the juice out of the pulp produced in the raperies, the cane sugar planter in the West Indies could easily hold his own, notwithstanding the artificial competition created and maintained by sugar bounties. But the degree of perfection attained in the cultivation of the roots and their subsequent manipulation entirely altered this situa- tion and brought about the crisis in the sugar trade referred to in connexion with the bounties (see History below) and dealt with in the Brussels convention of 1902. In beetroot sugar manufacture the operations are washing, slicing, diffusing, saturating, sulphuring, evaporation, concentration and curing. Slicing. — The roots are brought from the fields by carts, canals and railways. They are weighed and then dumped into a washing machine, consisting of a large horizontal cage, submerged in water, in which revolves a horizontal shaft carrying arms. The arms are set in a spiral form, so that in revolving they not only stir the roots, causing them to rub against each other, but also force them forward from the receiving end.of the cage to the other end. Here they are discharged (washed and freed from any adherent soil) into an elevator, which carries them up to the top of the building and delivers them into a hopper feeding the slicer. Slicers used to be constructed with iron disks about 33 to 40 in. diameter, which were fitted with knives and made 140 to 150 revolutions per minute, under the hopper which received the roots. This hopper was divided into two parts by vertical division plates, against the bottom edge of which the knives in the disk forced the roots and sliced and pulped them. Such machines were good enough when the juice was expelled from the small and, so to speak, chopped slices and pulp by means of hydraulic presses. But hydraulic presses have now been abandoned, for the juice is universally obtained by diffusion, and the small slicers have gone out of use, because the large amount of pulp they produced in proportion to slices is not suitable for the diffusion process, in which evenly cut slices are required, which present a much greater surface with far less resistance to the diffusion water. Instead of the small slicers, machines made on the same principle, but with disks 7 ft. and upwards in diameter, are used. Knives are arranged around their circumference in such a way that the hopper feeding them presents an annular opening to the disk, say 7 ft. outside diameter and 5 ft. inside, with the necessary division plates for the knives to cut against, and instead of making 140 to 150 revolutions the disks revolve only 60 to 70 times per minute. Such a slicer is capable of efficiently slicing 300,000 kilos of roots in twenty-four hours, the knives being changed four times in that period, or oftener if required, for it is necessary to change them the moment the slices show by their rough appearance that the knives are losing their cutting edges. Diffusion. — The diffusion cells are closed, vertical, cylindrical vessels, holding generally 60 hectolitres, or 1320 gallons, and are arranged in batteries of 12 to 14. Sometimes the cells are erected in a circle, so that the spout below the slicing machine revolving above them with a corresponding radius can discharge the slices into the centre of any of the cells. In other factories the cells are arranged in lines and are charged from the slicer by suitable telescopic pipes or other convenient means. A circular disposition of the cells facilitates charging by the use of a pipe rotating above them, but it renders the disposal of the hot spent slices somewhat SUGAR difficult and inconvenient. The erection of the cells in straigh lines may cause some little complication in charging, but it allow: the hot spent slices to be discharged upon a travelling band whicl takes them to an elevator, an arrangement simpler than any whicl is practicable when the cells are disposed in a circle. Recently however, a well-known sugar maker in Germany has altered his battery in such manner that instead of having to open a large door below the cells in order to discharge them promptly, he opens a comparatively small valve and, applying compressed air at the top of the cell, blows the whole contents ofspent slices up a pipe to the drying apparatus, thus saving not only a great deal of time but also a great deal of labour of a kind which is both arduous and painful, especially during cold weather. The slices so blown up, or elevated, are passed through a mill which expels the surplus water, and are then pressed into cakes and dried until they hole about 12% of water and 88% of beet fibre. These cakes, sole as food for cattle, fetch as much as £4 per ton in Rumania, where four or five beetroot factories are now at work. A cell when filled with fresh slices becomes the head of the battery, and where skilled scientific control can be relied upon to regulate the process, the best and most economical way of heating the slices, previous to admitting the hot liquor from the next cell, is by direct steam; but as the slightest inattention or carelessness in the admission of direct steam might have the effect of inverting sugar and thereby causing the loss of some portion of saccharine in the slices, water heaters are generally used, through which water is passed and heated up previous to admission to the freshly-filled cell. When once a cell is filled up and the slices are warmed through, the liquor from the adjoining cell, which hitherto has been running out of it to the saturators, is turned into the new cell, and beginning to displace the juice from the fresh slices, runs thence to the saturators. When the new cell comes into operation and becomes the head of the battery, the first or tail cell is thrown out, and number two be- comes the tail cell, and so the rounds are repeated; one cell isalways being emptied and one filled or charged with slices and heated up, the latter becoming the head of the battery as soon as it is ready. Saturation. — The juice, previously treated with lime in the diffusion battery, flows thence into a saturator. This is a closed vessel, into which carbonic acid gas (produced as described here- after) is forced, and combining with the lime in the juice forms carbonate of lime_. The whole is then passed through filter presses, the clear juice being run off for further treatment, while the carbon- ate of lime is obtained in cakes which are taken to the fields as manure. The principal improvement made of recent years in this portion of the process has been the construction of pipes through which the carbonic acid gas is injected into the juice in such a manner that they can be easily withdrawn and a clean set substituted. The filter presses remain substantially unchanged, although many ingenious but slight alterations have been made in their details. The juice, which has now become comparatively clear, is again treated with lime, and again passed through a saturator and filter presses, and comes out still clearer than before. It is then treated with sulphurous acid gas, for the purpose of decolorization, again limed to neutralize the acid, and then passed through a third saturator wherein all traces of lime and sulphur are removed. A process for purifying and decolorizing the juice expressed from beetroots by the addition of a small quantity of manganate of lime (20 to 50 grammes per hectolitre of juice), under the influence of an electric current, was worked with considerable success in a sugar factory in the department of Seine-et-Marne in the year 1900-1901. A saving of 40% is stated to be effected in lime. The use of sulphurous acid gas is entirely abandoned, and instead of three carbonatations with corresponding labour and plant only one is required. The coefficient of purity is increased and the viscosity of the juice diminished. The total saving effected is stated to be equivalent to 3 francs per ton of beetroot worked up. This system is also being tried on a small scale with sugar-cane juice in the West Indies. If by this process a more perfect defeca- tion and purification of the juice is obtained, it will no doubt be highly beneficial to the cane planter, though no great economy in lime can be effected, because but very little is used in a cane factory in comparison with the amount used in a beet factory. Evaporation and Crystallization. — The clear juice thus obtained is evaporated in a multiple-effect evaporator and crystallized in a vacuum pan, and the sugar is purged in centrifugals. From the centrifugal the sugar is either turned out without washing as raw sugar, only fit for the refinery, or else it is well washed with a spray of water and air until white and dry, and it is then offered in the market as refined sugar, although it has never passed through animal charcoal (bone-black). The processes of evaporation and concentration are carried on as they are in a cane sugar factory, but with this advantage, that the beet solutions are freer from gum and glucose than those obtained from sugar-canes, and are therefore easier to cook. Curing. — There are various systems of purging refined, or so- called refined, sugar in centrifugals, all designed with a view of obtaining the sugar in lumps or tablets, so as to appear as if it had been turned out from moulds and not from centrifugals, and great ingenuity and large sums of money have been spent in perfecting these different systems, with more or less happy results. But the great achievement of recent manufacture is the production, without the use of animal charcoal, of a cheaper, but good and wholesome article, in appearance equal to refined sugar for all intents and purposes, except for making preserves of fruits in the old-fashioned way. The wholesale iam manufacturers of the present day use this sugar; they boil the jam in vacua and secure a product that will last a long time without deteriorating, but it lacks the delicacy and distinctive flavour of fruit preserved by a careful housekeeper, who boils it in an open pan with cane sugar to a less density, though exposed for a short time to a greater heat. Carbonatation. — The carbonic acid gas injected into the highly limed juice in the saturators is made by the calcination of limestone in a kiln provided with three cleaning doors, so arranged as to allow the lime to be removed simultaneously from them every six hours. The gas generated in the kiln is taken off at the top by a pipe to a gas-washer. In this it passes through four sheets of water, by which it is not only freed from any dust and dirt that may have come over with it from the kiln, but is also cooled to a temperature which permits an air-pump to withdraw the gas from the kiln, through the gas- washer, and force it into the saturators, without overheating. In some factories for refining sugar made from beet or canes this system of carbonatation is used, and en- ables the refiner to work with syrups distinctly alkaline and to economize a notable amount of animal charcoal. Refining. — Briefly, sugar-refining consists of melting raw or unrefined sugar with water into a syrup of 27° to 28° Beaume, or 1230 specific gravity, passing it through filtering cloth to remove the sand and other matters in mechanical suspension, and then through animal charcoal to remove all traces of colour- ing matter and lime, thus producing a perfectly clear white syrup, which, cooked in the vacuum pan and crystallized, becomes the refined sugar of commerce. Melting Pans. — The melting pans are generally circular vessels, fitted with a perforated false bottom, on which the sugar to be melted is dumped. The pans are provided with steam worms to keep the mass hot as required, and with mechanical stirrers to keep it in movement and thoroughly mixed with the water and sweet water which are added to the sugar to obtain a solution of the specific gravity desired. Any sand or heavy matter in suspension is allowed to fall to the bottom of the pan into the " sandbox " before the melted sugar is run off to the cloth filters. In a process employed with great success in some refineries the raw sugars are washed before being melted, and thus a purer article is obtained for subsequent treatment. In this process the raw sugar is mixed with a small amount of syrup so as to form a suitable magma, and is then run into a continuous centrifugal, where it is sufficiently washed, and from which it runs out, com- paratively clean, into the melting pans described above. Filters. — Taylor bag filters are generally used for clearing the melted liquor of its mechanical impurities. They were introduced years ago by the man whose name they still retain, but they are rery different in construction to-day from what they were when irst employed. They consist of tanks or cisterns fitted with ' heads " from which a number of bags of specially woven cloth are suspended in a suitable manner, and into which the melted sugar or liquor to be filtered flows from the melting pans. The jags, though 60 in. or more in circumference, are folded up in such a way that a sheath about 15 in. in circumference can be massed over them. Thus a maximum of filtering surface with a minimum of liquor in each bag is obtained, and a far greater lumber of bags are got into a given area that would otherwise )e possible, while the danger of bursting the bags by leaving them unsupported is avoided. As the liquor goes on filtering through the bags they gradually get filled up with slime and sludge, and the clear liquor ceases to run. Steam is then turned on to the ' outside of the bags and sheaths, and hot water is run through hem_ to wash out all the sweets they contain. Large doors at the side of the cistern are then opened, and as soon as the bags ire cool enough they are removed at the expense of very exacting abour and considerable time, and fresh bags and sheaths are fixed n their places ready for filtering fresh liquor. The dirty bags and iheaths are then washed, mangled and dried, and made ready or use again. In a refinery in Nova Scotia a system has been ntroduced by which a travelling crane above the bag filters lifts up any head bodily with all its bags attached, and runs it to the mud and washing tanks at the end of the battery, while another similar crane drops another head, fitted with fresh bags, into the place of the one just removed. The whole operation of thus changing a filter occupies about ten minutes, and there is no need or anyone to enter the hot cistern to detach the bags, which are •emoved in the open air above the mud tank. By this arrangement he work of a refinery can be carried on with about one-half the isterns otherwise required, because, although it does not reduce he number of bags required per day for a given amount of work, it enables the refiner to use one cistern twice a day with SUGAR 43 fresh bags, instead of only once as heretofore. In some refineries the travelling cranes are now run by electricity, which still further facilitates the work. Another method of enabling more work to be done in a given time in a given cistern is the use of a bag twice the ordinary length, open at both ends. This, being folded and placed in its sheath, is attached by both ends to the head, so that the melted liquor runs into both openings at the same time. The mud collects at the bottom of the (_)' ar>d allows the upper part ol the bag to filter for a longer time than would be the case if the bottom end were closed and if the bag hung straight like the letter |. The clear, bright syrup coming from the bag filters passes to the charcoal cisterns or filters. These are large cylindrical vessels from 20 to 50 ft. high, and of such diameter as to hold a given quantity of animal charcoal (also called " bone-black " and " char ") in proportion to the contemplated output of the refinery. A very usual size of cistern forming a convenient unit is one that will hold 20 tons of char. Each cistern is fitted with a perforated false bottom, on which a blanket or specially woven cloth is placed, to receive the char which is poured in from the top, and packed as evenly as possible until the cistern is filled. The char is then " settled " by water being slowly run on to it, in order to prevent the syrup making channels for itself and not permeating the whole mass evenly. The cistern being thus packed and settled is closed, and the syrup from the bag filters, heated up to nearly boiling point, is admitted at the top until the cistern is quite full. A small pipe entering below the false bottom allows the air in the cistern to escape as it is displaced by the water or syrup. In some refineries this pipe, which is carried up to a higher level than the top of the cistern, is fitted with a whistle which sounds as long as the air escapes. When the sound ceases the cistern is known to be full, and the entrance of further water or syrup is stopped. The syrup in the cistern is allowed to remain for about twelve hours, by which time the char will have absorbed all the colouring matter in it, as well as the lime. A cistern well packed with 20 tons of char will hold, in addition, about 10 tons of syrup, and after settling, this can be pressed out by allowing second quality syrup, also heated to nearly boiling point, to enter the cistern slowly from the top, or it may be pressed out by boiling water. By carefully watching the flow from the discharge cock of the cistern the change from the first liquor to the next is easily de- tected, and the discharge is diverted from the canal for the first liquor to the canal for the second liquor, and, when required, to the canals for the third and fourth liquors. Finally, boiling water is admitted and forces out all the last liquor, and then continues to run and wash out the sweets until only a trace remains. This weak solution, called " sweet water," is sometimes used for melt- ing the raw sugar, or it is evaporated in a multiple-effect apparatus to 27° Beaume density, passed through the char filter, and cooked in the vacuum pan like the other liquors. After the sweets have come away, cold water is passed through the char until no trace of lime or sulphate of lime is found in it; then a large manhole at the bottom of the cistern is opened, and the washed and spent char is removed. In most modern refineries the cisterns are so arranged that the spent char falls on to a travelling band and is conducted to an elevator which carries it up to the drying floor of the charcoal kiln. Retorts {or Reburning Char. — The kilns are made with either fixed or revolving retorts. The former perhaps produce a little better char, but the latter, working almost automatically, require less labour and attention for an equal amount of work, and on the whole have proved very satisfactory. From the drying floor on which the spent char is heaped up it falls by gravitation into the retorts. These are set in a kiln or oven, and are kept at as even a tempera- ture as possible, corresponding to a dull cherry-red. Below each retort, and attached to it, is a cooler formed of thin sheet-iron, which receives the hot char as it passes from the retort, and at the bottom of the cooler is an arrangement of valves which permits a certain amount of char to drop out and no more. With the fixed retorts these valves are worked from time to time by the attendant, but with revolving retorts they are worked continuously and automatically and allow from sixteen to twenty-four ounces of char to escape per minute from each cooler, and so make room in the retort above for a corresponding quantity to enter from the drying floor. The reburnt and cooled char is collected and sent back to the char cisterns. In the best-appointed refineries the whole of the work in connexion with the char is performed mechani- cally, with the exception of packing the filter cisterns with fresh char and emptying the spent and washed char on to the carrying bands. In former days, when refining sugar or " sugar baking " was supposed to be a mystery only understood by a few of the initiated, there was a _ place in the refinery called the "secret room," and this name is still used in some refineries, where, how- ever, it applies not to any room, but to a small copper cistern, constructed with five or six or more divisions or small canals, into which all the charcoal cisterns discharge their liquors by pipes led up from them to the top of the cistern. Each pipe is fitted with a cock and swivel, in such a manner that the liquor from the cistern can be turned into the proper division according to its quality. Vacuum Pans and Receivers. — The filtered liquors, being collected in the various service tanks according to their qualities, are drawn up into the vacuum pans and boiled to crystals. These are then discharged into large receivers, which are generally fitted with stirrers, and from the receivers the cooked mass passes to the centrifugal machines. As in the beetroot factories, these machines work on different systems, but nearly all are arranged to turn out sugar in lumps or tablets presenting an appearance similar to that of loaf sugar made in moulds, as this kind of sugar meets with the greatest demand. Granulated sugar, so called, is made by passing the crystals, after leaving the centrifugals, through a large and slightly inclined revolving cylinder with a smaller one inside heated by steam. The sugar fed into the upper end of the cylinder gradually works its way down to the lower, showering itself upon the heated central cylinder. A fan blast enters the lower end, and, passing out at the upper end, carries off the vapour produced by the drying of the sugar, and at the same time assists the evapora- tion. The dry sugar then passes into a rotating screen fitted with two meshes, so that three grades of sugar are obtained, the coarsest being that which falls out at the lower end of the revolving screen. Recent Improvements. — Systematic feeding for the vacuum pan and systematic washing of the massecuite have been recently introduced not only into refineries, but also into sugar houses or factories on plantations of both cane and beetroot, and great advantages have resulted from their employment. The first- mentioned process consists of charging and feeding the vacuum pan with the richest syrup, and then as the crystals form and this syrup becomes thereby less rich the pan is fed with syrup of lower richness, but still of a richness equal to that of the mother-liquor to which it is added, and so on until but little mother-liquor is left, and that of the poorest quality. The systematic washing of the massecuite is the reverse of this process. When the massecuite, well pugged and prepared for purging, is in the centrifugals, it is first washed with syrup of low density, to assist the separation of mother-liquor of similar quality, this washing being supple- mented by the injection of pure syrup of high density, or clairce," when very white sugar is required. The manufacturers who have adopted this system assert that, as compared with other methods, not only do they obtain an increased yield of sugar of better quality, but that they do so at a less cost for running their machines and with a reduced expenditure in sugar and " clairce." " Clairce " is the French term for syrup of 27° to 30° Beaum6 specially prepared from the purest sugar. Apart from modifications in the details of sugar refining which have come into use in late years, it should be mentioned that loaf sugar made in conical moulds, and sugars made otherwise, to re- semble loaf sugar, have practically disappeared from the trade, having been replaced by cube sugar, which is found to be more economical as subject to less waste by grocers and housekeepers, and also less troublesome to buy and sell. Its manufacture was introduced into England many years ago by Messrs Henry Tate & Sons, and they subsequently adopted and use now the improved process and apparatus patented in March 1890 by M Gustave Adant, a foreman sugar refiner of Brussels. The following is a brief description of the process and apparatus, as communicated by the courtesy of Messrs Henry Tate & Sons, Ltd. : Groups of cells or moulds are built within and against a cylindrical iron casing, by means of vertical plates inserted in grooves and set radially to the axis of the casing. Each cell is of suitable dimen- sions to turn out a slab of sugar about 14 in. long — this being about the height of the cell — and about 8 in. wide and about J in. to I in. thick. By means of a travelling crane the casing is placed within an iron drum, to which it is secured, and is then brought under an overhead vacuum pan, from which the cells are filled with massecuite. After cooling, the casing is lifted out of the drum by a crane, assisted by compressed air, and is then con- veyed by a travelling crane to a vertical centrifugal, inside of which it is made fast. Suitable provision is made for the egress of syrup from the massecuite in the cells when undergoing purging in the centrifugal ; and the washing of the crystals can be aided by the injection of refined syrup and completed by that of " clairce." When this is done, the casing is hoisted out of the centrifugal and the vertical plates and the slabs of sugar are extracted. The slabs are sent by a conveyor to a drying stove, whence they issue to pass through a cutting machine, provided with knives so arranged that the cutting takes place both downwards and upwards, and here the slabs are cut into cubes. The cubes fall from the cutting machine pn to a riddling machine, which separates those which are defective in size from the rest. These latter pass to automatic weighing machines, which drop them, in quantities of I cwt., into wooden aoxes of uniform measurement, made to contain that weight; and the boxes are then conveyed to the storehouse, ready for sale. History and Statistics. — Strabo xv. i. 20, has an inaccurate notice from Nearchus of the Indian honey-bearing reed, and various classical writers of the first century of our era notice :he sweet sap of the Indian reed or even the granulated salt- "ike product which was imported from IndJa, or from Arabia 44 SUGAR and Opone (these being entrepots of Indian trade),1 under the name of saccharum or ff&.Kx.a-pi (from Skr. sarkara, gravel, sugar), and used in medicine. The art of boiling sugar was known in Gangetic India, from which it was carried to China in the first half of the yth century; but sugar refining cannot have then been known, for the Chinese learned the use of ashes for this purpose only in the Mongol period, from Egyptian visitors.2 The cultivation of the cane in the West spread from Khuzistan in Persia. At Gunde-Shapur in this region " sugar was prepared with art " about the time of the Arab conquest,3 and manufacture on a large scale was carried on at Shuster, Sus and Askar-Mokram throughout the middle ages.4 It has been plausibly conjectured that the art of sugar refining, which the farther East learned from the Arabs, was developed by the famous physicians of this region, in whose pharmacopoeia sugar had an important place. Under the Arabs the growth and manufacture of the cane spread far and wide, from India to Sus in Morocco (EdrisI, ed. Dozy, p. 62), and were also introduced into Sicily and Andalusia. In the age of discovery the Portuguese and Spaniards became the great disseminators of the cultivation of sugar; the cane was planted in Madeira in 1420; it was carried to San Domingo in 1494; and it spread over the occupied portions of the West Indies and South America early in the i6th century. Within the first twenty years of the i6th century the sugar trade of San Domingo expanded with great rapidity, and it was from the dues levied on the imports brought thence to Spain that Charles V. obtained funds for his palace-building at Madrid and Toledo. In the middle ages Venice was the great European centre of the sugar trade, and towards the end of the isth century a Venetian citizen received a reward of 100,000 crowns for the invention of the art of making loaf sugar. One of the earliest references to sugar in Great Britain is that of 100,000 Ib of sugar being shipped to London in 1319 by Tomasso Loredano, merchant of Venice, to be exchanged for wool. In the same year there appears in the accounts of the chamberlain of Scotland a payment at the rate of is. 9$d. per Ib for sugar. Throughout Europe it continued to be a costly luxury and article of medicine only, till the increasing use of tea and coffee in the i8th' century brought it into the list of principal food staples. The increase in the consumption is exemplified by the fact that, while in 1700 the amount used in Great Britain was 10,000 tons, in 1800 it had risen to 150,000 tons, and in 1885 the total quantity used was almost 1,100,000 tons. In 1747 Andreas Sigismund Marggraf, director of the physical classes in the Academy of Sciences, Berlin, discovered the existence of common sugar in beetroot and in numerous other fleshy roots which grow in temperate regions. But no practical use was made of the discovery during his lifetime. The first to establish a beet-sugar factory was his pupil and successor, Franz Carl Achard, at Cunern (near Breslau) in Silesia in 1801. The processes used were at first very imperfect, but the extra- ordinary increase in the price of sugar on the Continent caused by the Napoleonic policy gave an impetus to the industry, 'Lucan iii. 237; Seneca, Epist. 84; Pliny, H.N. xii. 8 (who supposes that sugar was produced in Arabia as well as in India); Peripl. mar. Eryth. § 14; Dioscorides ii. 104. The view, often repeated, that the saccharum of the ancients is the hydrate of silica, sometimes found in bamboos and known in Arabian medicine as tabashir, is refuted by Yule, Anglo-Indian Glossary, p. 654; see also Not. et extr. des MSS. de la bibl. nat. xxv. 267 seq. 8 Marco Polo, ed. Yule, ii. 208, 212. In the middle ages the best sugar came from Egypt (Kazwini i. 262), and in India coarse sugar is still called Chinese and fine sugar Cairene or Egyptian. 1 So the Armenian Geography ascribed to Moses of Chorene (q.v. for the date of the work) ; St Martin, M6m. sur VArmenie, 11. 372. 4 Istakhri p. 91; Yakut ii. 497. Tha'alibi, a writer of the nth to the sultan in annual tribute (Lafaif, p. 107).' The names of sugar in modern European languages are derived through the Arabic from the Persian shakar. and beetroot factories were established at many centres both in Germany and in France. In Germany the enterprise came to an end almost entirely with the downfall of Napoleon I.; but in France, where at first more scientific and economical methods of working were introduced, the manufacturers were able to keep the industry alive. It was not, however, till after 1830 that it secured a firm footing; but from 1840 onwards it advanced with giant strides. Under the bounty system, by which the protectionist countries of Europe stimulated the beet sugar industry by bounties on exports, the production of sugar in bounty-paying countries was encouraged and pushed far beyond the limits it could have reached without state aid. At the same time the con- sumption of sugar was greatly restricted owing to the heavy excise duties imposed mainly to provide for the payment of the bounties. The very large quantity of output made available for export under these exceptional conditions brought about the flooding of the British and other markets with sugars at depressed prices, not unfrequently below the prime cost of production, to the harassment of important industries carried on by British refiners and sugar-growing colonies. In these circumstances, the British government sent out invita- tions on the 2nd of July 1887 for an international conference to meet in London. The conference met, and on the 3Oth of August 1888 a convention was signed by all the powers represented except France — namely, by Austria, Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia and Spain. France withdrew because the United States was not a party to it. The first article declared that " The high contracting parties engage to take such measures as shall constitute an absolute and com- plete guarantee that no open or disguised bounty shall be granted on the manufacture or exportation of sugar." The seventh article provided that bountied sugars (sucres primis) must be excluded from import into. the territories of the signatory powers, by absolute prohibition of entry or by levying thereon a special duty in excess of the amount of the bounties, from which duty sugars coming from the contracting countries, and not bounty- fed, must be free. The convention was to be ratified on the ist of August 1890, and was to be put in force on the ist of September 1891. The convention of 1888 was never ratified, and it is doubtful whether its ratification was urged, for a bill introduced by the British government in 1889 to give it effect was not pressed, and it was manifest that there was hesitation — which presently became refusal — to uphold the policy of the penalties on the importation of bountied sugar imposed by the seventh article, without which the convention would be so much waste paper. Eight years later, on the ist of August 1896, the bounties offered by the governments of Germany and Austria-Hungary were approximately doubled, and France had a bill in prepara- tion to increase hers correspondingly, although it was computed that they were even then equivalent to a grant of £3, 53. per ton. So wrote Mr Chamberlain, the colonial secretary, on the gth of November following, to the treasury. The minute plainly stated that it had become a question whether the continued enjoyment of advantages resulting from the importation of , cheap bounty-fed sugar to some British industries did not involve the ruin of the British sugar-producing colonies; and that he was not prepared, as secretary of state for the colonies, to accept the responsibility of allowing matters to take their course and to acquiesce in the policy of non-intervention hitherto pursued in regard to the bounties without having satisfied himself as to what such a policy might entail as regarded both the colonies and the exchequer. Mr Chamberlain concluded by asking whether the treasury would consent to sending a royal commission to the West Indies to inquire into the effect of the foreign sugar bounties on their principal industry. The treasury accepted the proposal, and a royal commission proceeded to the West Indies in December 1896, and reported a few months later in 1897. Only one commissioner, however, denounced the bounties as the real cause of the utter breakdown of trade and of the grievous distress which all three had witnessed SUGAR 45 and fully acknowledged. But the minute and commission were not barren of result. A fresh conference of the powers assembled at Brussels, on the invitation of the Belgian government, on the 7th of June 1898; and although the British delegates were not empowered to consent to a penal clause imposing counter- vailing duties on bounded sugar, the Belgian premier, who pre- sided, was able to assure them that if Great Britain would agree to such a clause, he could guarantee the accession of the govern- ments of Germany, Austria, Holland and his own. Of all the countries represented — Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Spain, France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia and Sweden — only one, namely France, was opposed to the com- plete suppression of all export bounties, direct or indirect; and Russia declined to discuss the question of her internal legislation, contending that her system did not amount to a bounty on exportation. Apart from the proceedings at the sittings, much of the actual work of the conference was done by informal discussion, under- taken to discover some means of arriving at a common under- standing. Was a compromise possible which would bring about a satisfactory settlement? The British delegates wrote that it appeared that there were at that time but two methods of securing the suppression of the bounty system — an arrangement for limitation of the French and Russian bounties acceptable to the other sugar-producing states, in return for the total abolition of their bounties; or, a convention between a certain number of these states, providing for the total suppression of their bounties, and for the prohibition of entry into their terri- tory of bounty-fed sugars, or countervailing duties prohibiting importation. The Belgian government thought a compromise might be possible. A proposal was annexed to the prods-verbal of the final sitting, and the president closed the first session of the conference on the 2Sth of June 1898 with the expression of a hope that the delegates would soon reassemble. The annual aggregate output of cane and date sugar in India was short of 4,000,000 tons. Exportation had long ceased, partly owing to the bountied competition of beet sugar, and partly because the people had become able to afford the con- sumption of a greater quantity than they produced; and German and Austrian sugars were pouring into the country to supply the deficiency. But the importation of foreign sugar, cheapened by foreign state aid to a price which materially reduced the fair and reasonable profit of native cultivators, was a state of things the Indian government could not accept. On the 2oth of March 1899 an act, authorizing the imposition of countervail- ing duties on bounty-fed articles at the port of importation, was passed by the Council of India, and received the assent of the governor-general. This decisive step was not long in making itself felt in the chanceries of Europe. In October 1900 a conditional agree- ment for the reduction of the bounties was made in Paris between France, Germany and Austria-Hungary; in February 1901 the Belgian government proposed a new session of the Con- ference of 1898, and on the i6th of December following Brussels welcomed once more the delegates of all the powers, with the exception of Russia, to the eighth European Sugar Bounty Con- ference since that of Paris in 1862. The discussion lasted over eight sittings, but the conference, to which the British delegates had come with powers to assent to a penal clause, arrived at an understanding, and a convention was signed in March 1902. This was ratified on the ist of February 1903, subject to a declaration by Great Britain that she did not consent to penalize bounty-fed sugar from the British colonies. It was "agreed " to suppress the direct and indirect bounties which might benefit the production or export of sugar, and not to establish bounties of this kind during the whole duration of the convention," which was to come into force on the ist of September 1903, and to remain in force five years, and thenceforward from year to year, in case no state denounced it twelve months before the 1st of September in any year. A permanent commission was established to watch its execution. Sugars polarizing From . To . . 75° 88° 88° 93° 65° 98° 90° 98° 88° 99° 93° 99i° 98°o 100° 100° 99i° 100° Bounties (per cwt.) s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d s d- * d s d s d s d Countries- Russia . Austria- 233 2 II •i 34-65 Hungary i 1 2 13 193 France . 4 4* Crystals 4